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THEORY AND PRACTICE 



TEACHING 



THE MOTIVES AND METHODS 



GOOD SCHOOL-KEEPING 



BY DAVID P. PAGE 

READING-CIRCLE EDITION 
With Notes, and a Topical Index for Reviews 




AN 1^1894 

SYRACUSE, N. Y. ^2^33^ 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 
1893 



Copyright, 1893, by C. W. Bardebn 



h 



LB/025 



PREFACE TO THE READINfi-CIRCLE EDITION 



NO other Ameri 
claim as thi 



•ican book on teaching has so much 
this to be considered a classic. For 
nearly fifty years it has been regarded almost univer- 
sally as the one book the young teacher would most 
profit by. A hundred thousand teachers have drawn 
help and inspiration from its pages. 

It seems only just to the author of a work so success- 
ful that his book should be printed just as he wrote it. 
The day is past when commentators re-write Shakspere. 
They may annotate and explain and conjecture, but 
they take the text as they find it, and print their ob- 
servations in another type. This book has been less 
fortunate. In different editions issued since Mr. Page's 
death chapters have been added, details have been 
changed, passages have been entirely rewritten. 

This volume goes back to the book that Mr. Page 
published, and follows word for word the text of the 
only edition he ever authorized. Where the times have 
changed and we in them, references to present condi- 
tions are given in the Notes that follow, which are also 
in some part explanatory and historical. 

(V) 



VI PREFACE TO THE READING-CIECLE EDITIOK 

III place of the table of contents there is appended a 
minute tabular analysis for review, which the different 
sizes of type will make it easy to consult. When a 
subject is first mentioned, the page reference gives also 
the subsequent pages on which the same subject is 
treated. 

In short, the effort has been to present Mr. Pagers 
book as Mr. Page wrote it, with such added helps as 
will make it of most use. 

C. W. Bardeen. 
Syracuse, Dec. 4, 1893. 



PREFACE 



MANY a meritorious look has failed to find read- 
ers by reason of a toilsome preface. If the 
following volume meets a similar fate, whatever its 
merits it shall lack a like excuse. 

This work has had its origin in a desire to contribute 
something toward elevating an important and rising 
profession. Its matter comprises the substance of a 
part of the course of lectures addressed to the classes of 
the Institution under my charge, during the past two 
years. Those lectures, unwritten at first, were de- 
livered in a familiar, colloquial style, — their main 
object being the inculcation of such practical views as 
would best promote the improvement of the teacher. 
In writing the matter out for the press, the same style, 
to considerable extent, has been retained, — as I have 
written with an aim at usefulness rather than rhetorical 
effect. 

If the term theory in the title suggests to any mind 

the bad sense sometimes conveyed by that word, I 

would simply say that I have not been dealing in the 

speculative dreams of the closet, but in convictions de- 

(vil) 



Vlll PREFACE 

rived from the realities of the schoolroom during some 
twenty years of actual service as a teacher. Theory 
may justly mean the scie7ice distinguished from the art 
of Teaching, — but as in practice these should never be 
divorced, so in the following chapters I have endeavored 
constantly to illustrate the one by the other. 

If life should be spared and other circumstances 
should warrant the undertaking, perhaps a further 
course comprising the Details of Teaching may, at some 
future time, assume a similar form to complete my 
original design. 

David P. Page 
State Normal School, i 
Allany, N. Z., Jan, i, 1847] 



A SHORT BIOGRAPHY 



or 



DAVID PERKINS PAGE 



Brief Summary 



DAVID PERKINS PAGE was born July 4, 1810, 
at Epping, N. H.; from sixteen to seventeen 
spent one year at Hampton Academy ; taught in small 
schools for four years ; at twenty-one became vice-prin- 
cipal of the school at Newburyport, Mass.; and at 
thirty-four, w^as made 2:>rincipal of the State Normal 
School at Albany 5 N. Y., where he died January 1, 
1848, aged thirty-seven. 

This seems a short biography, but it is the biography 
of a great man. Let us consider his life in its five 
periods : (1) his early days ; (2) his academy life ; (3) 
his preliminary teaching ; (4) his work at Newbury- 
port ; (5) his work at Albany. 

(1) His Early Days 
His father was a farmer, and meant that David should 
be one. So the boy had only the scant education of the 
rudimentary district school. He hungered for more 

(9) 



10 DAVID PERKINS PAGE 

learning, pored at night over the few books the house 
afforded, and implored his father for permission to 
attend the nearest academy. The father was obdurate 
until he saw the boy in his seventeenth year stretched 
on a bed of sickness that threatened to be fatal. As 
the father hovered over him, the seemingly dying boy 
turned his full eyes upon him, and asked almost inaudi- 
bly : ^' Father if I get well may I go to the Academy ?'' 

This was indeed the ruling passion strong in death. 
The father could no longer resist, the promise was given, 
the boy recovered, and his life-work was determined on : 
he was to be not a farmer but a teacher. 
(2) His Academy Life 

Hampton Academy was founded in 1810, and was at 
this time a crude institution struggling feebly to give 
means for a higher education. 

But rudimentary as it was, the students had already 
the cliques and castes and the regard for outward 
appearance that have not yet disappeared from our 
secondary schools, and David was made to feel his 
inferiority. 

*^ Here," says Horace Mann, "^^he encountered, for 
the first time in his life, that feeling so common and 
yet so contemptible, which assigns social rank and esti- 
mation not according to moral and intellectual worth, 
but to the cloth one can afford to buy, or to the tailor 
one employs. He was dressed in the plain garb of a 



HIS PRELIMINARY TEACHING 11 

farmer^s boy. He met at the Academy specimens of 
that class of young men upon the texture and style of 
whose garments their parents had expended their money 
and skill, but had reserved none for the refinement and 
elevation of their minds. Polished on the outside, they 
were the rudest of boors within ; gentlemen only so far 
as an ape or a swine might be called a gentleman if 
arrayed in fine linen, broadcloth, or silk ; whose bodies 
may live in a palace, but whose souls grovel in a sty. 
To their gibes and jeers he was subjected, and doubtless 
his mind here got what Paley calls ' a holding turn ^ — 
an unspeakable contempt for the pretensions that are 
founded on wealth or habiliments, and a profound 
religious respect for moral worth. ^^ 

(3) His Preliminary Teaching 
It was the custom in those days for the poorer 
academy students to teach during the winter, and David 
took a district school for the usual period. Altogether 
he spent less than a year at the Academy, and he taught 
the next winter in his native town. 

"The next winter,'' says Barnard, *^'he had deter- 
mined to make teaching a profession, and accordingly, 
having taught a district school at Newbury, Mass., 
during the winter, at its close he opened a private 
school ; a daring step for a young man but nineteen 
years of age, and who had enjoyed so few advantages of 
education, but the success which followed fully justified 



12 DAVID PERKIKS PAGE 

the self-reliance which led him to attempt it. At the 
beginning he had five pnpils, but he persevered, and 
before the close of the term, the number he had con- 
templated was full. 

*' Here, as every where else, during his career as a 
teacher, was manifested that diligence, industry, and 
careful preparation for his duties, which made him so 
eminently successful. He studied the lessons he was to 
teach, thoroughly, that he might impart instruction 
with that freshness and interest which such study would 
give ; he studied his scholars, thoroughly, that he might 
adaj)t his teachings to their several capacities, encour- 
aging the diffident and sluggish, restraining the for- 
ward, and rousing the listless and careless to unwonted 
interest and energy ; he studied, too, their moral 
natures, and sought to wake in their youthful hearts 
aspirations for goodness and purity ; and he studied 
whatever would enlarge his sphere of thouglit, intelli- 
gence, and professional usefulness.* 

^' Such a teacher was sure to rise in reputation ; 
slowly, perhaps, but certainly, and hence it need not 
surprise us to learn that, within two years, he was 

* Gideon F. Tliayer relates that when he saw him last, hardly a month 
before his death, Mr. Page said that he had become somewhat familiar 
with Latin, but had not yet made much progress in Greek. "I Intend, 
however," he added with enthusiasm, " to master that, too, within the 
coming year, If my life is spared," 



HIS WORK AT NEWBURYPORT I^ 

associate principal of the Newburyport High School, 
having charge of the English department/' 

(4) His Work at Newburyport 
Here for twelve years he was associated with Roger S. 
Howard, Esq., one of the most eminent teachers in 
Massachusetts, and how well he fulfilled his duties, 
Mr. Howard, who survived him, testified. The same 
intense fondness for study characterized him, leading 
him to acquire a very competent knowledge of the Latin 
language, and something of the Greek ; the same earn- 
est and conscientious performance of all his school 
duties, and delight in them, was manifested here as in 
his humbler position. It was while occupying this post, 
that he first began to come before the public as a 
lecturer. 

An incident related by Horace Mann shows how Mr. 
Page escaped one of the pitfalls that even more then 
than now beset tlie unwary teacher. 

The author of a series of school-books laid a plan to 
ensnare Mr. Page, and secure his influence in favor of 
their introduction into the Newburyport schools. Sup- 
posing that Mr. Page would be actuated by mercenary 
motives like himself, he approached him on the side of 
acquisitiveness. Being a member of a school committee 
which gave much higher salaries to masters than Mr. 
Page was receiving, he used the lure of promotion to a 
better rewarded field of labor. He represented to Mr. 



14 DAVID PERKINS PAGE 

Page that a vacancy was about to occur which he, the 
bookmaker, could probably fill with his own nominee, 
and in flattering terms proffered his influence to Mr. 
Page in favor of the successorship. But at the close of 
this disinterested interview was a pregnant suggestion 
that before the transfer from the old to the new position 
Mr. Page should secure tlie adoption of the aforesaid 
author's books in the schools of the town he was to 
leave. This opened his eyes. On inquiry he found 
that no such vacancy was about to occur, and that the 
whole train of inducements which had been set before 
him was a fabrication, having no other object than to 
suborn his influence in favor of the books in question. 
^^More than once,'' says Mr. Mann, ''have I heard Mr. 
Page express his scorn and detestation of this piece of 
knavery, with the hope that the time might some time 
come when, at some meeting of the friends of education, 
in the presence of the culprit himself, he might have 
an opportunity to recount these facts and publicly 
fasten their infamy upon their author." 

As A Lecturer 

But Mr. Page had already become more than a 
teacher in the Newburyport high school. We quote 
from Dr. Barnard : 

"He was an active and prominent member of the 
Essex County Teachers' Association, one of the most 
efficient educational organizations in Massachusetts, 



HIS WORK AT ALBAiTY 1^ 

and delivered before that body several lectures, which 
Hon. Horace Mann characterized as the best ever de- 
livered before that or any other body. Of one of these, 
on 'The Mutual Duties of Parents and Teachers,' six 
thousand copies were printed and distributed (3,000 of 
them at Mr. Mann's expense), throughout the State. 
Of his lecture before the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion in 1843 on ' Advancement in the Means and 
Methods of Public Instruction' two thousand copies 
were printed at the expense of the Institute. 

''Mr. Page's powers as an orator and debater were 
of a very high order ; he possessed, says Mr. Mann 
(himself an orator of no mean rank), that rare quality, 
so indispensable to an orator, the poiuer to thinh, stand- 
ing on Ms feet y and before folks, 

" As a teacher, he exhibited two valuable qualifica- 
tions ; the ability to turn the attention of his pupils to 
the principles which explain facts, and in such a way 
that they could see clearly the connection ; and the 
talent for reading the character of his scholars so 
accurately that he could at once discern what were 
their governing passions and tendencies, what in them 
need encouragement and what repression. Thus, use- 
ful, active, and growing in reputation, Mr. Page re- 
mained at Newburyport till December, 1844." 

(5) His Work at Albany 
In the winter preceding, the legislature of New York, 
to continue Dr, Barnard's account, wearied with th^ 



16^ DAVID PERKIKS PAGE 

costly but unsuccessful measures which, year after year, 
had been adopted for the improvement of her public 
schools, had appointed a committee of its own body, 
warm friends of education, to visit the normal schools of 
Massachusetts, and make a report thereon. The com- 
mittee attended to their duties, and made an elaborate 
report in favor of the adoption of the normal school 
system. That report was adopted, and an appropriation 
of $10,000 a year outfit, and $10,000 for five years, was 
voted, to establish a normal school, as an experiment. 

The friends of education in New York felt that, lib- 
eral as this api^ropriation was, everything depended 
upon securing the right man to take charge of it, and 
long and carefully did they ponder the question, who 
that man should be. Mr. Page's reputation had already 
outrun the town and the county in which he resided ; 
and, on the recommendation of Horace Mann and 
other friends of education in Massachusetts, Alonzo 
Potter, Col. Young, Francis D wight, and other mem- 
bers of the committee, entered into correspondence with 
him on the subject. 

In reply to the first communication, he addressed 
numerous inquiries to the committee concerning the 
plan proposed for the organization and management of 
the school. These questions were so pointed, and so 
well chosen, that Col. Young, on hearing them, at once 
exclaimed, ^'Tliat is the man we need," and expressed 
himself entirely satisfied, without any further evidence* 



HIS WORK AT ALBANY 17 

So cautious, however, were the committee, that it was 
decided that before closing the negotiation Dr. Potter 
should visit Xewburyport, and have a personal inter- 
view with Mr. Page. He accordingly went there, called 
at Mr. Pagers residence, and found him in his every-day 
dress, and engaged in some mechanical work connected 
with the improvement of his dwelling. An interview 
of a single half hour so fully prepossessed him with Mr. 
Pagers personal bearing and conversation, that he at 
once closed the negotiations with him, and secured his 
services as principal of the New York State Normal 
School. 

Mr. Page closed his connection with the Newburyport 
High School about the middle of December, 1844 ; not 
without numberless demonstrations of regret and affec- 
tionate regard on the part of his pupils and friends. 
While on his way to Albany, he spent a night with Mr. 
Mann, in Boston ; and the new duties he was about to 
undertake, the obstacles and difficulties, the opposition 
and misrepresentations he would meet, and the impor- 
tance and necessity of success, formed themes of con- 
verse which occupied them till the early morning hours. 
In parting Mr. Mann said to Mr. Page, as a veteran 
commander might have said to a youthful officer going 
to lead a forlorn hope, ''Succeed or die.'' The 
words sank deep into his heart ; they were adopted as 
his motto in the brief but brilliant career which fol- 



18 DAVID PERKINS PAGE 

lowed ; and once, on recovering from a dangerous illness, 
he reminded liis friend of his injunction, and added, 
'^ I thought I was about to fulfil the last alternative." 
Mrs. Sigourney made this injunction of Horace Mann 
the subject of her well-known poem : 

" Succeed or die," 

Teacher, was that thy creed ? 
The motto on thy banner, when thou earnest 
A soldier to the field ? 

" Succeed or die." 
'Twas graven on thy shield. Unresting toil 
Won the first trophy, as the grateful heart 
Of many a youth to patient knowledge trained 
Doth testify with tears ; while many a man 
Crowned by his Alma Mather, from the post 
Of honor or of care, remembereth well 
Whose strong, persuasive nurture led him there. 
So thy first goal was gained. 

But for the next 
The Excelsior of tliy creed ; — methinks the first 
Involved the second ; for to die like thee 
Was but the climax of a full success. 
Taking its last reward. 

Yea, such reward 
As waiteth those who the young soul shall turn 
To righteousness, — a name above the stars, 
That in the cloudless firmament of God 
Forever shine. 

He arrived at Albany a few days before the com- 
mencement of the '^experiment," as the normal school 



HIS WORK AT ALBANY 19 

was designated, and found everything in a chaotic state. 
The rooms intended for his accommodation were as yet 
unfinished ; there was no organization, no apparatus. 
Indeed he found very few of the appliances necessary 
to a successful beginning. While the few were hoping, 
though not without fear, for its success, the many were 
prophesying its utter failure. 

From this chaos, the systematic mind of Mr. Page 
soon evolved order ; full of hope, and confident of the 
success of the normal school system himself, he infused 
energy and courage into the hearts of its desponding 
friends, and caused its enemies to falter as they saw 
how all obstacles yielded to the fascination of his pres- 
ence, or the power of his will. 

The school commenced with twenty-five scholars, but . 
before the close of its first term the number had increased 
to one hundred. At the commencement of the second 
term, two hundred assembled for instruction. From 
this time its course was onward ; every term increased 
its popularity ; and the accommodations provided for it, 
large as they were, w^ere soon crowded. 

For the first three years it had to contend with numer- 
ous and unscrupulous foes, some of whom attacked the 
system, others its practical workings, others still, who 
were strangers to his person, attacked the character of 
the principal of the school. Meantime, Mr. Page 
labored indefatigably ; against the assaults upon the 



20 DAVID PERKINS PAGE 

organization or its practical operations, lie interposed 
able, manly, and courteous defences ; those which were 
leveled at himself, he bore in silence ; but no man, 
whatever his position in the State, and however bitter 
might have been his hostility to the school, or to its 
principal, ever came within the magnetism of his pres- 
ence and influence, without being changed from an 
enemy to a friend. Among the most decided, as well 
as the most conscientious opposers of the normal school, 
was the Hon. Silas Wright ; indeed, in his election as 
governor, the enemies of the school claimed a triumph, 
and counted largely on his eminent abilities to aid them 
in putting it down ; but a very few months' residence 
in Albany converted this man, of strong and determined 
will, into one of its sincerest friends. 

The recognition of his power as an advocate was well 
shown at the meeting of the State Teachers' Associa- 
tion at Rochester, in 1846. The academic and college 
interests of the State had combined against the Normal 
School, and meant to commit the Association to a vote 
that it wanted no such an institution. But Mr. Page 
heard of it, and sat upon the platform throughout the 
session. The prime movers knew that if the motion 
came up he would speak upon it, and that if he spoke 
upon it it was hopelessly lost ; so the movement col- 
lapsed. 

During the vacations of the school, Mr. Page gave 
himself no rest ; he visited different parts of the State,, 



HIS WORK AT ALBANY 21 

attended teachers' institutes, lectured day after day, 
and, wherever lie went, removed prejudices, cleared up 
doubts, and won golden opinions. Every such visit 
drew the ensuing term a large number of pupils to the 
school from the section visited. The State Superin- 
tendent was accustomed to say, that " he needed only 
to look at the catalogue of the Normal school to tell 
where Mr. Page had spent his vacations." 

Before four years had passed, the school had ceased 
to be an *' experiment '' ; it was too firmly rooted in the 
hearts of the people to be abandoned, and the opposi- 
tion, which had at first been so formidable, had dwindled 
into insignificance. But the toil requisite to accom- 
plish this had been too arduous for any constitution, 
however vigorous, to endure. The autumnal term of 
1847 found him cheerful and hopeful as ever, but with 
waning physical strength. It had been his custom to 
call on every one of his pupils at his boarding-place, 
and this time he said to his fellow teachers : "I have 
visited them all ; it is a severe task. It is too much for 
me alone and hereafter I must have your aid."' At 
lengtli he consented to take a vacation of a week or two 
during the Christmas holidays. 

Alas ! the relaxation came too late ; the evening be- 
fore he was to leave, there was a meeting of the faculty 
at his residence ; he was cheerful, but complained of 
slight indisposition, and retired early. With the nighty 



22 DAVID PERKINS PAGE 

however, came violent fever, and restlessness, and by 
the morning light, the physicians in attendance pro- 
nounced the disease pneumonia. At first the attack 
excited little alarm, but it soon became evident that his 
overtasked vital powers had not the ability to resist the 
violence of the disorder. On the fourth day, he ex- 
pressed to a friend his conviction that he should not 
recover. The severity of the disease soon increased, 
and, on the morning of New Year% 1848, he passed 
away. 

Six months before his death, he had, in company 
with one of his teachers, Wm. F. Phelps, made a brief 
visit to his former home, at Newburyport ; and while 
visiting the beautiful cemetery there, he stopped sud- 
denly near a shady spot, and said, ^' Here is where I 
desire to be buried." The sad funeral train which bore 
frorii Albany to Newbury port, the clay that once had 
been his earthly habitation, laid it sadly, yet hopefully, 
in that quiet nook, to repose till the archangels trump 
shall be heard, and the dead be raised. 

His life had been short, as men count time ; he lacked 
six months of completing his thirty-eighth year when 
he was summoned to the better land ; but if life be 
reckoned by what is accomplished, then had his life 
been longer far than that of the antediluvian partri- 
archs. Of the hundreds of teachers who were under 
his care at Albany, there was not one who did not look 



HIS WORK AT ALBANY 23 

up to him with admiration and love ; not one who did 
not bear, to some extent, at least, the impress of his 
character and influence ; and it is doing no injustice 
to those who have so worthily succeeded him, to say 
that a very large part of the progress which the Empire 
State has made in the cause of education has been from 
the reflex influence of his spirit and teaching upon those 
who were his pupils. 

Nor is this influence confined to New York ; other 
States feel it ; men, who were trained under him at 
Albany, have occupied high positions all over the coun- 
try ; and gifted women, who, under his teachings, were 
moved to consecrate themselves to the holy duty of 
training the young, have been at the head of seminaries 
of high order, extending his influence in widening 
circles over the entire land. 

Our brief narrative exhibits, we think, clearly what 
were the marked traits of Mr. Page's character ; indus- 
try, perseverance, decision, energy, great executive 
ability, ready tact, and conscientious adherence to what 
he regarded as duty. The secret of his success, said 
Gideon F. Thayer, was found in his thorough conscien- 
tiousness, his religious princij^le, his fidelity in duty, 
connected with his self-faith, his diligence, and his in- 
domitable will. He felt that he could, — he resolved, — 
he conquered ! But no language can describe the fascin- 
ation of his manner, the attraction of his presence, his 



24 DAVID PEEKIl^^S PAGE 

skill in what he was accustomed to call the draicing-out 
process, or his tact in making all his knowledge avail- 
able. His familiar lectures to his pupils on subjects 
connected with the teacher^s life and duties, could they 
be published, would form an invaluable hand-book for 
teachers. He possessed, beyond most men, the happy 
talent of always saying the right thing at the right time. 
In personal appearance, Mr. Page was more than ordin- 
arily prepossessing, — of good height and fine form, erect 
and dignified in manner, scrupulously neat in person, 
and easy in address, he was a living model to his pupils 
of what a teacher should be. 

Aside from a few lectures, published at different 
times, to some of which we have already alluded, Mr. 
Page left but one published work, — '' The Theory and 
Practice of Teaching,'' a work which has had a larger 
circulation than any other work on education ever 
published. 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



CHAPTER I 

SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER 

PERHAPS the very first question that the honest 
individual will ask himself, as he proposes to 
assume the teacher's office, or to enter upon a prepara- 
tion for it, will be — " What manner of sjnrit am I of 9 " 
No question can be more important. I would by no 
means undervalue that degree of natural talent — of 
mental power, which all justly consider so desirable in 
the candidate for the teacher's office. But the true 
sjpirit of the teacher, — a spirit that seeks not alone 
pecuniary emolument, but desires to be in the highest 
degree useful to those who are to be taught ; a spirit 
that elevates above every thing else the nature and capa- 
bilities of the human soul, and that trembles under the 
responsibility of attempting to be its educator ; a spirit 
that looks upon gold as the contemptible dross of earth, 
when compared with that imperishable gem which is to 
be polished and brought out into heaven's light to shine 

forever ; a spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth, 

(25) ■ 



26 THEORY AlTD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

True spirit.— Motives often wrong. 

and seeks that highest of all rewards, an approving 
conscience and an approving God ; a spirit that earn- 
estly inquires what is right, and that dreads to do what 
is wrong ; a spirit that can recognize and reverence the 
handiwork of God in every child, and that burns with 
the desire to be instrumental in training it to the highest 
attainment of which it is capable, — such a spirit is the 
first thing to be sought by the teacher, and without it 
the highest talent cannot make him truly excellent in 
his profession. 

The candidate for the office of the teacher should 
look well to his motives. It is easy to enter upon the 
duties of the teacher without preparation ; it is easy to 
do it without that lofty purpose which an enlightened 
conscience would ever demand ; but it is not so easy 
to undo the mischief which a single mistake may pro- 
duce in the mind of the child, at that tender period 
when mistakes are most likely to be made. 

Too many teachers are found in our schools without 
the spirit for their work which is here insisted on. They 
not only have not given attention to any preparation 
for their work, but resort to it from motives of personal 
convenience, and in many instances from a conscious- 
ness of being unfit for everything else ! In other 
professions this is not so. The lawyer is not admitted 
to the bar till he has pursued a course of thorough 



SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER 27 



Preparation neglected. 



preparation, and even then but warily employed. The 
physician goes through his course of reading and his 
course of lectures, and often almost through a course 
of starvation in the country village where he first puts 
up his sign, before he is called in to heal the maladies 
of tha body. It is long before he can inspire confidence 
enough in the people to be intrusted with their most 
difficult cases of ailing, and very likely the noon of life 
is passed before he can consider himself established. 
But it is not so with the teacher. He gains access to the 
sanctuary of mind without difficulty, .and the most 
tender interests for both worlds are intrusted to his 
guidance, even when he makes pretension to no higher 
motive than that of filling up a few months of time not 
otherwise appropriated, and to no qualifications but 
those attained by accident. A late writer in the Jour- 
nal of Education hardly overstates this matter :— 
''Every stripling who has passed four years within the 
walls of a college ; every dissatisfied clerk who has not 
ability enough to manage the trifling concerns of a com- 
mon retail shop ; every young farmer who obtains in 

the winter a short vacation from the toils of summer, 

in short, every young person who is conscious of his 
imbecility in other business, esteems himself fully com- 
petent to train the ignorance and weakness of infancy 
into all the virtue and power and wisdom of maturer 



28 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Teaching a secondary "Object.— Ignorance does not excuse. 

years, — to form a creature, the frailest and feeblest that 
heaven has made, into the intelligent and fearless 
sovereign of the whole animated creation, the interpre- 
ter and adorer and almost the representative of Di- 
vinity ! ^' 

Many there are who enter upon the high eniploy- 
ment of teaching a common school as a secondary 
object. Perhaps they are students themselves in some 
higher institution, and resort to this as a temporary 
expedient for paying their board, while their chief 
object is, to pursue their own studies and thus keep 
pace with their classes. Some make it a stepping-stone 
to something beyond, and, in their estimation, higher 
in the scale of respectability, — treating the employ- 
ment,, while in it, as irksome in the extreme, and never 
manifesting so much delight as wdien the hour arrives 
for the dismissal of their schools. Such have not the 
true spirit of the teacher ; and if their labors are not 
entirely unprofitable, it only proves that children are 
sometimes submitted to imminent danger but are still 
unaccountably preserved by the hand of Providence. 

The teacher should go to his duty full of his work. 
He should be impressed with its overwhelming import- 
ance. He should feel that his mistakes, though they 
may not speedily ruin him, may permanently injure his 
pupils. Nor is it enough that he shall say, '' I did it 



SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER 2^") 



Dangerous to mislead mind. 



ignorantly''. He has assumed to fill a place where 
ignorance itself is sin ; and where indifference to the 
well-being of others is equivalent to wilful homicide. 
He might as innocently assume to be the physician, 
and, without knowing its effects, prescribe arsenic for 
the colic. Ignorance is not in such cases a valid excuse, 
because the assumption of the place implies a pretension 
to the requisite skill. Let the teacher, then, well con- 
sider what manner of spirit he is of. Let him come to 
this work only when he has carefully pondered its 
nature and its responsibilities, and after he has devoted 
his best powers to a thorough preparation of himiSelf 
for its high duties. Above all, let him be sure that his 
motives on entering the school-room are such as will be 
acceptable in the sight of God, when viewed by the 
light beaming out from his throne. 

' ' Oh ! let not then unskilful hands attempt 
To play the harp, whose tones, whose living- tones 
Are left forever in the strings. Better far 
That heaven's lightnings blast his very soul, 
And sink it back to Chaos' lowest depths. 
Than knowingly, by word or deed, he send, 
A blight upon the trusting mind of youth," 



CHAPTER II 

RESPOKSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEE 



SECTIOISr I. — A NEGLECTED PEAR-TREE 

SOME years ago, while residing in the northeastern 
part of Massachusetts, I was the owner of a small, 
garden. I had taken much pains to improve the con- 
dition and appearance of the place. A woodbine had 
been carefully trained upon the front of the little home- 
stead ; a fragrant honeysuckle, supported by a trellis, 
adorned the doorway ; a moss-rose, a flowering almond, 
and the lily of the valley, mingled their fragrance in 
the breath of morn, — and never, in my estimation at 
least, did the sun shine upon a lovelier, happier spot. 
The morning hour was spent in '^dressing and keep- 
ing '' the garden. Its vines were daily watched and 
carefully trained ; its borders were free from weeds, 
and the plants expanded their leaves and opened their 
buds as if smiling at the approach of the morning sun. 
There were fruit trees, too, which had been brought 
from far, and so carefully nurtured, that they were 
covered with blossoms, filling the air with their fra- 
grance and awakening the fondest hopes of an abundant 
harvest. (30) 



HESPOKSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 81 

Neglected pear-tree.— Pruning commenced. 

In one corner of this miniature paradise, there was 
a hop-trellis ; and, in the midst of a bed of tansy hard 
by, stood a small, knotty, crooked pear-tree. It had 
stood there I know not how long. It was very dimin- 
utive in size ; but like those cedars which one notices 
high up the mountain, just on the boundary between 
vegetation and eternal frost, it had every mark of the 
decrepitude of age. 

Why should this tree stand here so unsightly and 
unfruitful ? Why had it escaped notice so long ? Its 
bark had become hound and cracked ; its leaves were 
small and curled ; and those, small as they were, were 
ready to be devoured by a host of caterpillars, whose 
pampered bodies were already grown to the length of 
an inch. The tendrils of the hop-vine had crept about 
its thorny limbs and were weighing down its growth, 
while the tansy at its roots drank up the refreshing dew 
and shut out the genial ray. It was a neglected tree! 

''Why may not this tree be pruned ?^^ No sooner 
said, than the small saw was taken from its place and 
the work was commenced. Commenced'^ It was hard 
to determine where to commence. Its knotty branches 
had grown thick and crooked, and there was scarcely 
space to get the saw between them. They all seemed 
to deserve amputation, but then the tree would have no 
top. This and that limb were lopped off as the case 



32 THEOEY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIis^G 

Disagreeable toil.— Grafting of a Bartlet Pear.— Anxiety. 

seemed to demand. The task was neither easy nor 
pleasant. Sometimes a violent stroke would bring 
down npon my oAvn head a shower of the filthy cater- 
pillars ; again the long-cherished garden-coat — thread- 
bare and faded as it was — got caught, and before it 
conld be disengaged, what an unsightly rent had been 
made ! With jjain I toiled on, for one of the unlucky 
thorns had pierced my thumb ; and I might have been 
said to be working on the S2:)ur of the occasion ! 

The hop-vine, however, w"as removed from its boughs, 
the tansy and weeds from its roots, the scales and moss 
from its bark. The thorns were carefully jDared from 
its limbs, and the caterpillars were all shaken from its 
leaves. The mould was loosened and enriched, and the 
sun shined that day upon a long neglected, but now a 
promising tree. 

The time for grafting was not yet passed. One re- 
putedly skilled in that art was called to put the new 
scion upon the old stock. The work was readily under- 
taken and speedily accomplished, and the assurance was 
given that the Bartlet Pear — that prince among the 
fruits of Kew England — would one day be gathered 
from my neglected tree. 

With what interest I watched the buds of the scion, 
morning after morning, as the month grew warmer, 
and vegetation all around was " bursting into birth !^' 



RESPOKSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 33 

Tlie pears ripen.— Cliagrin and mortification.— A moral garden. 

With what delight did I greet the first opening of those 
buds, and how did I rejoice as the young shoots put 
forth and grew into a fresh green top ! With tender 
solicitude I cherished this tree for two long summers ; 
and on the opening of the third, my heart was gladdened 
with the sight of its first fruit blossoms. With care 
were the weeds excluded, the caterpillars exterminated, 
the hop-vine clipped, the bark rubbed and washed, the 
earth manured and watered. The time of fruit arrived. 
The Bartlet pear was offered in our market, — but my 
pears were not yet ripe ! With anxious care they were 
watched till the frost bade the green leaves wither, and 
then they were carefully gathered and placed in the 
sunbeams within doors. They at length turned yellow, 
and looked fair to the sight and tempting to the taste ; 
and a few friends who had known their history, were 
invited to partake of them. They were brought for- 
ward, carefully arranged in the best dish the humble 
domicil afforded, and formally introduced as the first 
fruits of the "neglected tre&'\ What was my chagrin 
and mortification, after all my pains and solicitude, 
after all my hopes and fond anticipations, to find they 
were miserable, tasteless — choke pears ! 

This pear-tree has put me upon thinking. It has 
suggested that there is such a thing as a moral garden, 
in which they may be fair flowers indeed, but also some 



S4: THEOEY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIHCJ 

Many neglected trees.— Infancy. 

7veglected trees. The plants in this garden may suffer 
very much from neglect, — from neglect of the gardener. 
It is deplorable to see how many crooked, unseemly 
branches shoot forth from some of these young trees, 
which early might have been trained to grow straight 
and smooth by the hand of cultivation. Manyayouth^ 
running on in his own way, indulging in deception and 
profanity, yielding to temptation and overborne by evil 
influences, polluting by his example, and wounding the 
hearts of his best friends as they yearn over him for 
good, has reminded me of my neglected tree, its cater- 
pillars, its roughened bark, its hop-vine, its tansy bed, 
its cruel piercing thorns. And when I have seen such 
a youth brought under the influence of the educator, 
and have witnessed the progress he has made and the 
intellectual promise he has given, I have also thought 
of my neglected tree. When, too, I have followed him 
to the years of maturity, and have found, as I have too 
often found, that he brings not forth " the peaceable 
fruits of righteousness ", but that he disappoints all the 
fondly-cherished hopes of his friends — perhaps of his 
own teachers, because the best principles were not en- 
grafted upon him, I again think of my neglected tree, 
and of the unskilful, perhaps dishonest gardner, who 
acted as its responsible educator. 
From the above as a text, several inferences might 



KESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEK 85 

Extent of tlie teaclier's responsibility.— Bodily health. 

be drawn. 1. Education is necessary to develop the 
human soul. 2. Education should begin early. We 
have too many neglected trees. 3. It should be right edu- 
cation. And 4. The educator should be a safe and an 
honest man ; else the education may be all wrong, — 
may be worse even than the neglect. 
But especially we may infer that 

SECTION" II. — THE TEACHER IS RESPONSIBLE. 

It is the object of the following remarks feebly to 
illustrate the extent of the teacher's responsibility. It 
must all along be borne in mind that he is not alone 
responsible for the results of education. The parent 
has an overwhelming responsibility, which he can never 
part with or transfer to another while he holds the 
relation of parent. 

But the teacher is responsible in a very high degree. 
An important interest is committed to his charge when- 
ever a human being is placed under his guidance. By 
taking the position of the teacher, all the responsibility 
of the relation is voluntarily assumed ; and he is fear- 
fully responsible not only for what he does, but also for 
what he neglects to do. And it is a responsibility from 
which he cannot escape. Even though he may have 
thoughtlessly entered upon the relation of teacher, with- 
out a single glance at its obligations ; or though, when 



36 ^HEOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHTKG 

Laws of physical health.— Nervous'excitement. 

reminded of them, he may laugh at the thought, and 
disclaim all idea of being thus seriously held to a fear- 
ful account, — yet still the responsibility is on him. 
Just as true as it is a great thing to guide the mind 
aright, — just as true as it is a deplorable, nay, fatal thing 
to lead it astray, so true is it that he who attempts the 
work, whether ignorant or skilful, whether thoughtless 
or serious, incurs all the responsibility of success or 
failure, — a responsibility he can never shake off as long 
as the human soul is immortal, and men are accountable 
for such consequences of their acts as are capable of 
being foreseen. 

I. The teacher is in a degree responsible for the bodily 
HEALTH of the child. It is well established that the 
foundation of many serious diseases is laid in the school- 
room. These diseases come sometimes from a neglect 
of exercise ; sometimes from too long confinement in 
one position, or upon one study ; sometimes from over- 
excitement and over-study ; sometimes from breath- 
ing bad air ; sometimes from being kept too warm or 
too cold. Now the teacher should be an intelligent 
physiologist ; and from a knowledge of what the human 
system can bear and what it cannot, he is bound 
to be ever watchful to guard against all those abuses 
from which our children so often suffer. Especially 
should he be tremblingly alive to avert that excitability 



RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEE 37 

Natural order.— Reading, &c. 

of the nervous system, the over-action of which is so 
fatal to future happiness of the indivicluaL And should 
he, by appealing to the most exciting motives, encour- 
age the delicate child to press on to grasp those subjects 
which are too great for its comprehension, and allow 
it to neglect exercise in the open air in order to task its 
feverish brain in the crowded and badly ventilated 
school-room ; and then, in a few days, be called to look 
upon the languishing sufferer upon a bed of exhaustion 
and pain — perhaps a bed of premature death, could he 
say, ^'I am not responsible'^ ? Parents and teachers 
often err in this. They are so eager to develop a pre- 
cocious intellect, that they crush the casket in order to 
gratify a prurient desire to astonish the world with the 
brilliancy of the gem. Each is responsibe for his 
share of this sin ; and the teacher especially, because by 
his education he should know better. 

II. The teacher is mainly responsiUe for the intel- 
lectual GROWTH of the child. This may be referred 
chiefly to the following heads : — 

1. The order of studij. There is a natural order in 
the education of the child. The teacher should know 
this. If he presents the subjects out of this order, he 
is responsible for the injury. In general the elements 
should be taught first. Those simple branches which 
the child first comprehends, should first be presented. 



38 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Mental Aritlimetic— Recite wlttiout book. 

Reading, of course, must be one of tlie first ; though I 
think the day is not distant when an enlightened com- 
munity will not condemn the teacher, if, while teaching 
reading, he should call the child's attention by oral 
instructions to such objects about him as he can com- 
prehend, even though in doing this he should somewhat 
prolong the time of learning to read. It is indeed of 
little consequence that the child should read iijords 
simply ; and that teacher may be viewed as pursuing 
the order of nature, who so endeavors to develop the 
powers of observation and comparison, that words when 
learned shall be the vehicles of ideas. Some further 
suggestions on this point will be made in the chapter 
entitled '^ Waking up Mind". 

Next to Reading and its inseparable companions — 
Spelling and Defining , I am inclined to recommend the 
study of Mefital Aritlimetic. The idea of Number is 
one of the earliest in the mind of the child. He can be 
early taught to count, and quite early to perform these 
operations which we call adding, subtracting, multiply- 
ing, and dividing. This study at first needs no hook. 
The teacher should be thoroughly versed in " Colburn's 
Intellectual Arithmetic '\ or its equivalent, and he can 
find enough to interest the child. When the scholar 
has learned to read, and has attained the age of six or 
§even, he may be allowed a book 'u\ preparing his lesson, 



EESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 39 

Geograpny and history. 

but never during the recitation. Those who have not 
tried this kind of mental discipline will be astonished 
at the facility which the child acquires for performing- 
operations that often puzzle the adult. Nor is it an 
unimportant acquisition. None can tell its value but- 
those who have experienced the advantage it gives them 
in future school exercises and in business, over those 
who have never had such training. 

Geography may come next to Mental Arithmetic. 
The child should have an idea of the relations of size, 
form, and space, as well as number, before commencing 
Geography. These, however, he acquires naturally at 
an early age ; and very thoroughly, if the teacher has 
taken a little pains to aid him on these points in the 
earliest stages of his progress. A map is a picture, and 
hence a child welcomes it. If it can be a map of some 
familiar object, as of his school-room, of the school dis- 
trict, of his father's orchard or farm, it becomes an 
object of great interest. A map of his town is very 
desirable ; also of his county and of his own State. Fur- 
ther detail will be deferred here, as it is only intended in 
this place to hint at the order oi taking up the subjects. 

History should go hand in hand with Geography. 
Perhaps no greater mistake is made than that of deferring 
History till one of the last things in the child's course. 

Writing may be early commenced with the J9ewa7 



40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Writing.— Written Aritlimetic— Composition.— Grammar. 

upon the slate, because it is a very useful exercise to 
the child in prosecuting many of his other studies. 
But writing with a pen may well be deferred till the 
child is ten years of age, when the muscles shall have 
acquired sufficient strength to grasp and guide it. 

Written Aritlimetic may succeed the mental ; in- 
deed, it may be j)ractised along with it. 

Composition — perhaps by another name, as Descrip- 
tion — should be early commenced and very frequently 
practised. The child can be early interested in this, 
and he probably in this way acquires a better knowledge 
of practical grammar than in any other. 

Grammar, in my opinion, as a study, should be one 
of the last of the common school branches to be taken 
up. It requires more maturity of mind to understand 
its relations and dependencies than any other ; and that 
which is taught of grammar without such an under- 
standing, is a mere smattering of technical terms, by 
which the pupil is injured rather than improved. It 
may be said that unless scholars commence this branch 
early, they never will have the opportunity to learn it. 
Then let it go unlearned ; for as far as I have seen the 
world, I am satisfied that this early and superficial 
teaching of a difficult subject is not only useless but 
positively injurious. How many there are who study 
grammar for years, and then are obliged to confess in 



respo:n^sibility of the teacher 41 

How to study.— Not words, but thoughts. 

after life, because '^^ their speech bewrayeth^' them, that 
they never understood it ! How many, by the too early 
study of an intricate branch, make themselves tlimlc 
they understand it, and thus prevent the hope of any 
further advancement at the proper age ! Grammar, 
then, should 7iot he studied too early. 

Of the manner of teaching all these branches, I shall 
have more to say in due time. At present I have only 
noticed the order in which they should be taken up. 
This is a question of much consequence to the child, 
and the teacher is generally responsible for it. He 
should therefore carefully consider this matter, that he 
may be able to decide aright. 

2. The manner of study. It is of quite as much im- 
portance ho2U we study, as what we study. Indeed I 
have thought that much of the difference among men 
could be traced to their different habits of study, 
formed in youth. A large portion of our scholars study 
for the sake of preparing to recite the lesson. They 
seem to have no idea of any object beyond recitation. 
The consequence is, they study mechanically. They 
endeavor to remember pliraseology, rather than prin- 
ciples ; they study the looh, not the subject. Let any 
one enter our schools and see the scholars engaged in 
preparing their lessons. Scarcely one will be seen, who 
is not repeating over and over again the words of th^ 



42 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Teacher's duty.— Books but helps. 

text^ as if there was a saving charm in repetition. Ob- 
serve the same scholars at recitation^ and it is a struggle 
of the memory to recall the forms of words. The vacant 
countenance too often indicates that tlie}^ are words 
without meaning. This difficulty is very much in- 
creased if the teacher is confined to the text-book 
during recitation ; and particularly, if he relies mainly 
upon ih.Q printed questioiis so often found at the bottom 
of the page. 

The scholar should be encouraged to study the sub- 
ject ; and his book should be held merely as the in- 
strument. ^' Books are but helps, '^ is a good motto 
for every student. The teacher should often tell how 
the lesson should be learned. His precept in this 
matter will often be of use. Some scholars will learn 
a lesson in one-tenth of the time required by others. 
Human life is too short to have any of it employed to 
disadvantage. The teacher^ then, should inculcate 
such habits of study as are valuable ; and he should 
be particularly careful to break up, in the recitations, 
those habits which are so grossly mechanical. A child 
may almost be said to be educated, who has learned to 
study aright ; while one may have acquired in the me- 
chanical way a great amount of knowledge, and yet 
have no profitable mental discipline. 

For this difference in children, as well as in men, the 



RESPOjq^SIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 43 

Study objects.— Teaching to observe. 

teacher is more responsible tlian any other person. 
Let him carefully consider this matter. 

3. Collateral study. Books to be sure are to be 
studied, and studied chiefly, in most of our schools. 
But there is much for the teacher to do toward the 
growth of the mind which is not to be found in the 
school-books ; and it is the practical recognition of this 
fact which constitutes the great difference in teachers. 
Truth, in whatever department, is open to the faithful 
teacher. And there is such a thing, even in the pres- 
ent generation, as ^^ opening the eyes of the blind "^ to 
discover things new and old, in nature, in the arts, in 
history, in the relation of things. Without diminishing, 
in the least, the progress of the young in study, their 
powers of observation may be cultivated, their percep- 
tion quickened, their relish for the acquisition of know- 
ledge indefinitely increased, by the instrumentality of 
the teacher. This must of course be done adroitly. 
There is such a thing as excessively cramming the 
mind of a child, till he loathes everything in the way 
of acquisition. There is such a thing, too, as exciting 
an all-pervading interest in a group of children, so that 
the scholar shall welcome the return of school hours, 
and, by his cheerful step and animated eye as he seeks 
the school-house disclaim as faJse when applied to 



44 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Mind not to te crammed.— Moral training neglected.— Precept. 



him the language of the poet who described the 
school-bo}^ of his darker day, — 

" witli Ills satchel, 

And sliming morning face, creeping, like snail, 

Umvillingbj to school. " 

The teacher, who is responsible for such a result, 
should take care to store his own mind with the material, 
and exercise the ingenuity to do that which is of so 
much consequence to the scholar. The chapter on 
"Waking up Mind'' will give some further hints to the 
young teacher. 

III. The teacher is in a degree res2J07isil)le for the 

MORAL TRAINING of the child. 

I say in a degree, because it is confessed that in 
this matter very much likewise depends upon parental 
influence. 

This education of the heart is confessedly too much 
neglected in all our schools. It has often been re- 
marked that ''knowledge is power," and as truly that 
"knowledge without principle to regulate it may make 
a man a powerful villain." It is all-important that our 
youth should early receive such moral training as shall 
make it safe to give them knowledge. Vary much of 
this work must devolve upon the, teacher; or rather, 
when he undertakes to teach he assumes the responsi- 
bility of doing or of neglecting this work. 

The precept of the teacher may do much toward 



RESPOKSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 45 



Example.— Conscience can be cultivated.— How 



teaching the child his duty to God, to himself, and to 
his fellow-beings. But it is not miiinly by precept 
that this is to be done. Sermons and homilies are 
but little heeded in the school-room ; and unless the 
teacher has some other mode of reaching the feelings 
and the conscience, he may despair of being successful 
in moral training. 

The teacher should be well versed in human nature. 
He should know the power of conscience and the means 
of reaching it. He should himself have deep principle. 
His example in every thing before his school should be 
pure, flowing out from the purity of his soul. He 
should ever manifest the tenderest regard to the law of 
right and of love. He should never violate his OAvn 
sense of justice, nor outrage that of his pupils. Such 
a man teaches by his example. He is a 'living epistle, 
known and read of all '\ He teaches, as he goes in and 
out before the school, as words can never teach. 

The moral feelings of children are capable of sys- 
tematic and successful cultivation. Our muscles ac- 
quire strength by use ; it is so with our intellectual and 
moral faculties. We educate the power of calculation 
by continued practice, so that the proficient adds the 
long column of figures almost with the rapidity of 
sight, and with infallible accuracy. So with the moral 
feelings, *'The more frequently we use our con- 



is THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Evil example to be dreaded. 

science/' says Dr. Wayland, ^^in judging between ac- 
tions, as right and wrong, the more easily shall we 
learn to judge correctly concerning them. He who, 
before every action, will deliberately ask himself, ^Is 
this right or wrong ?' will seldom mistake wdiat is his 
duty. And children may do this as well as grown 
persons. '^ Let the teacher ajopeal as often as may be 
to the pupil's conscience. In a thousand ways can this 
be done, and it is a duty the faithful teacher owes to 
his scholars. 

By such methods of cultivating the conscience as the 
judicious teacher may devise, and by his own pure ex- 
ample, what may he not accomplish ? If he loves the 
truth, and ever speaks the truth ; if he is ever frank 
and sincere ; if, in a word, he shows that he has a ten- 
der conscience in all things, and that he always refers 
to it for its approval in all his acts, — what an influence 
does he exert upon the impressible minds under his 
guidance ! How those children will observe his con- 
sistent course ; and, though they may not speak of it, 
how great will be its silent power upon the formation 
of their characters ! And in future years, when they 
ripen into maturity, how will they remember and bless 
the example they shall have found so safe and salutary. 

Eesponsibility in this matter cannot be avoided. 
The teacher by his example does teach, for good or for 



EESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 11 

Consequences. 

evil, whether lie will or not. Indifference will not ex- 
cuse him ; for when most indifferent he is not less 
accountable. And if his example be pernicious, as too 
often even yet the example of the teacher is ; if he in- 
dulges in outbreaks of passion, or wanders in the mazes 
of deceitfulness ; if the blasphemous oath pollutes his 
tongue, or the obscene jest poisons his breath ; if he 
trifles with the feelings or the rights of others, and 
habitually violates his own conscience, — v.'hat a blight- 
ing influence is his for all coming time ! 

With all the attachment which young pupils will 
cherish even toward a bad teacher, and with all the 
confidence they will repose in him, who can describe 
the mischief which he can accomplish in one short 
term ? The school is no place for a man without j)rin- 
cifle ; I repeat, the school is no place for a mai^ 
WITHOUT pri]S"CIPLE. Let such a man seek a livelihood 
anywhere else ; or, failing to gain it by other means, 
let starvation seize the body and send the soul back to 
its Maker as it is, rather than he should incur the fear- 
ful guilt of poisoning youthful minds and dragging 
them down to his own pitiable level. If there can be 
one sin greater than another, on which heaven frowns 
with more awful disjoleasure, it is that of leading the 
young into principles of error and the debasing prac- 
tices of vice, 



48 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Trample not on the mind.— Eeligion our glory,— oui- hope. 

" Oh, wo to those who trample on the mind, 
That deathless thing ! They know not what they do, 
Nor what they deal with, Man, perchance, may bind 
The flower his step hath bruised ; or light anew 
The torch he quenches ; or to music wind 
Again the lyre-string from his touch that flew ; — 
But for the soul, oh, tremble and beware 
To lay rude hands upon God's mysteries there ! " 
Let then the teacher study well his motives when he 
enters this profession, and so let him meet his respon- 
sibility in this matter as to secure the approval of his 
own conscience and his God. 

IV. The teacher is to some extent responsible for the 
RELIGIOUS TRAINING of the young. 

We live in a Christian land. It is our glory, if not 
our boast, that we have descended from an ancestry 
that feared God and reverenced his word. Very justly 
we attribute our superiority as a people over those who 
dwell in the darker portions of the world, to our purer 
faith derived from that precious fountain of truth — the 
Bible. Very justly, too, does the true patriot and phi- 
lanthropist rely upon our faith and practice as a Chris- 
tian people for the permanence of our free institutions 
and our unequaled social privileges. 

If we are so much indebted, then, to the Christian 
religion for what we are, and so much dependent upon 
its life-giving truths for what we may hope to be, — how 



RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 49 

Avoid sectarianism.— Common ground.— Exemplified. 

important is it that all onr youth should be nurtured 
under its influences ! 

When I say religious training, I do not mean sec- 
tarianism. In our public schools, supported at the 
public expense, and in which the children of all de- 
nominations meet for instruction, I do not think that 
any man has a right to crowd his own peculiar notions 
of theology upon all, whether they are acceptable or 
not. Yet there is common ground which he can oc- 
cupy and to which no reasonable man can object. He 
can teach a reverence for the Supreme Being, a rever- 
ence for his Holy AVord, for the influences of his Spirit, 
for the character and teachings of the Savior, and for 
the momentous concerns of eternity. He can teach the 
evil of sin in the sight of God, and the awful conse- 
quences of it upon the individual. He can teach the 
duty of repentance and the privilege of forgiveness. 
He can teach our duty to worship God, to obey his 
laws, to seek the guidance of his Spirit, and the Salva- 
tion by his Son. He can illustrate the blessedness of 
the divine life, the beauty of holiness, and the joyful 
hope of heaven ; — and to all this no reasonable man 
will be found to object, so long as it is done in a truly 
Christian spirit. 

If not in express words, most certainly his life and 
example should teach this. Man is a religious being. 



50 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Dang-er of skepticism. 

The religious principle should be early cultivated. It 
should be safely and carefully cultivated ; and, as this 
cultivation is too often entirely neglected by parents, 
unless it is attempted by the teacher in many cases it 
will never be effected at all. 

Of course all those points which separate the com- 
munity into sects must be left to the family, the Sab- 
bath-school, and the pulpit. The teacher is responsible 
for his honesty in this matter. While he has no right 
to lord it over the private conscience of any one, he is 
inexcusable, if, believing the great truths of the Bible, 
he puts them away as if they concerned him not. They 
should command his faith, and govern his conduct ; 
and their claims upon the young should not be dis- 
owned. 

At any rate the teacher should be careful that his 
teaching and his example do not prejudice the youthful 
mind against these truths. It is a hazardous thing for 
a man to be skeptical by himself, even when he locks 
his opinions up in the secrecy of his own bosom ; how 
great then is the responsibility of teaching the young 
to look lightly upon the only book that holds out to us 
the faith of immortality, and opens to us the hope of 
heaven ! Let the teacher well consider this matter, 
and take heed that his teaching shall never lead one 
child of earth away from his heavenly Father, or from 



EESPOXSIBILITY 01- THE TEACJIER 



Who is sufficient ?— Inexcusable indifference. 



the rest of the righteous in the home of the blest. 

Ill view of what has been said, the young candidate 
for the teacher^s office, almost in despair of success, 
may exclaim, '"'Who is sufficient for these things P'"* 
'' Who can meet and sustain such responsibility ?" My 
answer is, the true inquirer after duty will not go 
astray. He is insufficient for these things, who is self- 
confident, who has not yet learned his own weakness, 
who has never found out his own faults, and who 
rushes to this great work as the unheeding '^' horse 
rusheth into the battle '\ not knowing whither he goeth. 
Alas, how many there are who enter this profession 
without the exercise of a, single thought of the respon- 
sibleness of the position, or of any of the great ques- 
tions which must in their schools for the first time be 
presented for their decision ! How many there are 
who never reflect upon the influence of their example 
before the young, and are scarcely conscious that their 
example is of any consequence ! Sucli, in the highest 
sense, will fail of success. How can they be expected 
to go right, where there is only one right way, but a 
thousand wrong ? Let such persons pause and con- 
sider before they assume responsibilities which they can 
neither discharge nor evade. Let such ask with deep 
solicitude, ^^ Who is sufficient for these things ?" 

But to the young person really desirous of improve- 



59, THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Tlie honest inquirer may hope.— Visit to the prison.— Neatness and order. 

ment ; to him who has taken the first and important 
step toward knowledge by making the discovery that 
every thing is not already known ; to him who sees 
beforehand that there are real difficulties in this pro- 
fession, and who is not too prond or self-conceited to 
feel the need of special preparation to meet them ; to 
him who has some idea of the power of example in the 
edncator, and who desires most of all things that his 
character shall be so pure as to render his example safe ; 
to him who has discovered that there are some deep 
mysteries in hnman nature, and that they are only to 
be fathomed by careful study ; to him who really feels 
that a great thing is to be done, and who has the sin- 
cere desire to prepare himself to do it aright ; to him, 
in short, who has the irtie spirit of tlie teacher, — I may 
say, there is nothing to fear. An honest mind, with 
the requisite industry, is stifficient for these things. 

SECTION III. — THE ALBURN STATE PRISON. 

During my visit at Auburn in the autumn of 1845, 
I was invited by a friend to visit the prison, in which at 
that time were confined between six and seven hundred 
convicts. I was first taken through the various work- 
shops, where the utmost neatness and order prevailed. 
As I passed along my eye rested upon one after another 
of the convicts, I confess^ with a feeling of surprise. 



TlESPONSrUTLTTT OF THE TEACHER 53 

An inquiry.— Library.— Wyatt the murderer. 

There were maii}^ good-looking men. If, instead of 
tlieir parti-colored dress, they could have been clothed in 
the citizen's garb, I should have thought them as good 
in appearance as laboring men in general. And when, 
to their good appearance, was added their attention to 
their work, their ingenuity, and the neatness of their 
Avork-rooms, my own mind began to press the inquiry, 
Whi/ are these men here? It was the afternoon "of Sat- 
urday. Many of them had completed their allotted 
work for the week, and with happy faces were perform- 
ing the customary ablutions ^preparatory to the Sabbath. 
Passing on, we came to the library, a collection of suit- 
able books for the convicts, which are given out as a 
reward for diligence to those who have seasonably and 
faithfully performed their labor. Here were many who 
had come to take their books. Their faces beamed 
with delight as they each bore away the desired volume, 
just as I had seen the faces of tlic happy and the free 
do before. Whi/ are these men here ? was again pressed 
upon me ; — Why are these men here ? 

At this time the famous Wyatt, since executed upon 
the gallows for his crime, was in solitary confinement, 
awaiting his trial for the murder of Gordon, a fellow- 
prisoner. I was permitted to enter his room. Chained 
to the floor, he was reclining upon his mattress in the 
middle of his apartment. As I apjn-oached him, his 



54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

SalDbath morn.— General view.— Worship.— Singing. 

large black eye met mine. He was a handsome man. 
His head was well developed, his long black hair hung 
upon his neck, and his eye was one of the most intelli- 
gent I ever beheld. Had I seen him in the senate 
among great men, — had I seen him in a school of 
philosophers, or a brotherhood of poets, I should prob- 
ably have selected him as the most remarkable man 
among them all, without suspecting his distinction to 
be a distinction of villany. Why is that man here ? 
thought I, as I turned away to leave him to his dread- 
ful solitude. 

The morrow was the Sabbath. I could not repress 
my desire to see the convicts brought together for wor- 
ship. At the hour of nine I entered their chapel and 
found them all seated in silence. I was able to see 
most of the faces of this interesting congregation. It 
was by no means the worst looking congregation I had 
ever seen. There were evidently bad men there ; but 
what congregation of free men does not present some 
such ? 

They awaited in silence the commencement of the 
service. When the morning hymn was read, they 
joined in the song, the chorister being a colored man 
of their own number. They sang as other congrega- 
tions sing, and my voice joined with theirs. The 
Scripture was read. They gave a respectful attention. 



RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 55 

Prayer.— Deep feeling. 

The prayer was begun. Some bowed in apparent rever- 
ence at the commencement. Others sat erect, and two 
or three of these appeared to be the hardened sons of 
crime. The chaplain's voice was of a deep, perhaps I 
should say, a fatherly tone, and he seemed to have the 
father's spirit. He prayed for these ''wayward ones^'', 
who were deprived of their liberty for their offences, 
but whom God would welcome to his throne of mercy. 
He prayed for their homes, and for their friends who 
this day would send their thoughts hither in remem- 
brance of those in bonds. He alluded to the scenes of 
their childhood, the solicitude of their early friends, and 
the affection of their parents. When the words home, 
friend, cliildliood, were heard, several of those sturdy 
sons of crime and wretchedness instinctively bowed 
their heads and concealed their faces in their hands ; 
and as o. father s blessing and a mothers love were alluded 
to, more than one of these outcasts from society were 
observed to dash the scalding tear from the eye. These 
n\Qnfeel like other men, — why are they here 9 was again 
the thought which forced itself upon my mind ; and 
while the chaplain proceeded to his sermon, in the 
midst of the silence that pervaded the room my mind 
ran back to their educators. Once these men were 
children like others. They had feelings like other chil- 
dren, affection, reverence, teachableness, conscience, — 



56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Tlie question again.— Speculation.— Tlieir teacliers. 

why are they here ? Some, very likely, on account of 
their extraordinary perversity ; but most because they 
had a wrong education. More than half, undoubtedly, 
have violated the laws of their country, not from extra- 
ordinary viciousness but from the weakness of their 
moral principle. Tempted just like other and better 
men, they fell, because in early childhood no one had 
cultivated and strengthened the conscience God had 
given them. I am not disposed to excuse the vices of 
men, nor to screen them from merited punishment ; 
neither do I worship a ''painted morality" based solely 
upon education, thus leaving nothing for the religion 
of the Bible to accomplish by purifying the heart, that 
fountain of wickedness ; yet how many of these men 
might have been saved to society ; how many of them 
have powers which under different training might have 
adorned and blessed their race ; how many of them may 
date their fall to the evil influence and poisonous ex- 
ample of some guide of their childhood, some recreant 
teacher of their early days, — God only knows ! But 
what a responsibility still rests upon the head of any 
such teacher, if he did not know or did not try to know 
the avenue to their hearts ; if he did not feel or try to 
feel the worth of moral principle to these very fallen 
ones ! And what would be his feelings if he could look 
back through the distant days of the j^ast and count up 



RESPOXSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 57 

View to tlie final Judgment. 

exactly the measure of his own faithfulness and of his 
own neglect ? This the all-seeing eye alone can do, — 
this He who looketh upon the heart ever does ! 

Teachers, go forth, then, conscious of your responsi- 
bility to your pupils, conscious of your accountability 
to God, go forth and teach this people ; and endeavor 
so to teach, that when you meet your pupils, not in the 
walks of life merely, not perhaps in the Auburn Prison, 
not indeed upon the shores of time, but at the final 
Judgment, where you must meet them all, you may be 
able to give a good account of the influence which you 
have exerted over mind. As it may then be forever too 
late to correct your errors and efface any injury done, 
study now to act the part of wisdom and the part of 
love. 

Study the human heart by studying the workings of 
your own ; seek carefully the avenues to the affections ; 
study those higher motives which elevate and ennoble 
the soul ; cultivate that purity which shall allure 
the wayward, by bright example, from the j^aths of 
error ; iml)ue your own souls with the love of teach- 
ing and the greatness of your work ; rely not alone 
upon yourselves, as if by your own wisdom and might 
you could do this great thing ; but seek that direction 
which our heavenly Father never withholds from the 
honest inquirer after his guidance, — and though the 



58 THEORY Al^D PRACTICE OF TEACHI:N"G 

Study to know, and to do. 

teacher's work is, and ever must be, attended with 
overwhelming responsibility, you will be sufficient 

FOR THESE THIJSTGS. 



CHAPTER III 

perso:n^al habits of the teacher 

THE importance of correct habits to any individual 
cannot be overrated. The influence of the teacher 
is so great upon the children under his care, either for 
good or evil, that it is of the utmost importance to 
them as well as to himself that his habits should be 
unexceptionable. It is the teacher^s sphere to irnp'*'Ove 
the community in which he moves, not only in learn- 
ing, but in morals and manners ; in every thing that is 
^•^ lovely and of good report". This he may do partly 
by precept, — but very much by examj^le. He teaches, 
wherever he is. His manners, his appearance, his 
character, are all the subject of observation, and to a 
great extent of imitation, by the young in his district. 
He is observed not only in the school, but in the family, 
in the social gathering, and in the religious meeting. 
How desirable then that he should be a model in all 
things ! 

Man has been said to be a '^^ bundle of habits " ; and 
it has been as pithily remarked — *' Happy is the man 
whose habits are his friends.'^ It were well if all per- 
sons, before they become teachers, would attend care- 

(59) 



60 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIITG 



Cleanliness. — Ablutio n . 



fully to tlie formation of their personal habits. This, 
unhappily is not always done, — and therefore I shall 
make no apology for introducing in this place some 
very plain remarks on what I deem the essentials among 
the habits of the teacher. 

1. Neatness. — This imj^lies cleanliness of the per- 
son. If some who assume to teach were not proverbial 
for their slovenliness, I would not dwell on this point. 
On this point, however, I must be allowed great plain- 
ness of speech, even at the expense of incurring the 
charge of excessive nicety ; for it is by attending to a 
few little tilings that one becomes a strictly neat per- 
son. The morning ablution, then, should never be 
omitted, and the comb for tlie hair and brush for the 
clothes should always be called into requisition before 
the teacher presents himself to the family, or to his 
school. Every teacher would very much promote his 
own health by washing the whole surface of the body 
every morning in cold water. This is now done by 
very many of the most enlightened teachers, as well as 
others. When jDhysiology is better understood this 
practice will be far more general. To uo class of per- 
sons is it more essential than to the teacher ; for on 
account of his confinement, often in an unventilated 
room, with half a hundred children during the da}^, 
verv much more is demanded of the exhalents in him 



PERSOJ^AL HABITS OP THE TEACHER 61 

Tlie teetli.— Tlie nails.— A vulgar habit.— Neat dress. 

thiiu ill others. His only safety is in a healtliy action 
of tlie skin. 

The teeth should be attended to. A brush and clean 
water have saved many a set of teeth. It is bad enough 
to witness the deplorable neglect of these important 
organs so prevalent in the community; but it is ex- 
tremely mortifying to see a filthy set of teeth in the 
mouth of the teacher of our youth. The nails, too, 1 
am sorry to say, are often neglected by some of our 
teachers, till their ebony tips are any thing but orna- 
mental. This matter is made worse, when, in the 
])resence of the family or of the school, the penknife is 
brought into requisition to remove that which should 
have received attention at the time of washing in the 
morning. The teacher should remember that it is a 
vulgar habit to pare or clean the nails while in the 
presence of others, and especially during conversation 
with them. 

The teacher should be neat in his dress. 1 do not 
urge that his dress should be expensive. His income 
ordinarily will not admit of this. He may wear a very 
plain dress ; nor should it be any way singular in its 
fashion. All I ask is that his clothing should be in 
good taste, and always clean. A slovenly dress, covered 
with dust, or spotted with grease, is never so much 
out of its proper j^lace, as when it clothes the teacher. 



62 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Tobacco.— A puzzle.— Improved taste.— Order, system. 



While upon this subject I may be indulged in a word 
or two upon the use of tobacco by the teacher. It is 
quite a puzzle to me to tell why any man but a Turk, 
who may lawfully dream away half his existence over 
the fumes of this filthy narcotic, should ever use it. 
Even if there were nothing wrong in the use of un- 
natural stimulants themselves, the filthiness of tobacco 
is enough to condemn it among teachers, especially in 
the form of chewing. It is certainly worth while to 
ask whether there is not some moral delinquency in 
teaching this practice to the young, while it is admitted 
by nearly all who have fallen into the habit, to be an 
evil, and one from which they would desire to be de- 
livered. At any rate, I hope the time is coming, when 
the good taste of teachers, and a regard for personal 
neatness and the comfort of others, shall present motives 
sufficiently strong to induce them to break away from 
a practice at once so unreasonable and so disgusting. 

2. Order. — In this place I refer to that system and 
regularity so desirable in every teacher. He should 
practise it in his room at his boarding-house. Every 
thing should have its place. His books, his clothing, 
should all be arranged with regard to this principle. 
The same habit should go with him to the school-room. 
His desk there should be a pattern of orderly arrange- 
ment. Practising this himself, he may with propriety 



PEliSOKAL HABITS Ui- TliK TEACHEIi 03 

Courtesy of language.— Profanity.— Purity.— Accuracy. 

insist upon it in liis pupils. It is of great moment to 
the teacher, that, when he demands order and arrange- 
ment among his pupils they cannot appeal to any breach 
of it in his own practice. 

3. Courtesy. — The teacher should ever be courteous, 
both in his language and in his manners. Courtesy of 
langiiage may imply a freedom from all coarseness. 
There is a kind of communication used among boatmen 
and hangers-on at bar-rooms which should find no place 
in the teacher's vocabulary. All vulgar jesting, all 
double-entendres, all low allusions, should be forever 
excluded from his mouth. And profanity ! — can it be 
necessary that I should speak of this as among the 
habits of the teacher ? Yes, it is even so. Such is the 
want of moral sense in the community, that men are 
still employed in some districts, whose ordinary conver- 
sation is poisoned with the breath of blasphemy ; ay, 
and even the walls of the school-room resound to un- 
disguised oaths ! I cannot find words to express my 
astonishment at the indifference of parents, or at the 
recklessness of teachers, wherever I know such cases 
to exist. 

Speaking of the language of the teacher, I might 
urge also that it should be both pure and accurate. 
Pure as distinguished from all those cant phrases and 
provincialisms which amuse the vulgar in certain local- 



04 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Courtesy oi manner.— Politeness, in tlie teacher. 

ities ; and accurate as to the terms nsecl to express his 
meaning. As the teaclier ieaclies in this, as in cvery- 
■ thing, by example as well as by precept, he should be 
very careful to acquire an unexce^itionable use of our 
language, and never deviate from it in the hearing of 
hiS pupils or elsewhere. 

There is a courtesy of manner also, which should 
characterize the teacher. This is not that ridiculous 
obsequiousness which some persons assume when they 
would gain the good opinion of others. It is true 
politeness. By politeness I do not mean any particular 
form of words, nor any prescribed or ^prescribable mode 
of action. It does not consist in hoiving according to 
any improved plan, nor in a compliance simply with 
the formulas of etiquette in the fashionable world. 
True politeness is founded in benevolence. Its law is 
embodied in the golden rule of the Saviour : — " Whatso- 
ever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so 
unto them." It is the exercise of real kindness. It 
entertains a just regard for the feelings of others, and 
seeks to do for them what would make them really 
happy. 

The teacher should possess this quality. Whenever 
he meets a child, it should be with the looks and words 
of kindness. Whenever he receives any token of regard 
from a pupil, he should acknowledge it in the true 



PERSOJ^"AL HABITS OF THE TEACHER 65 



Anecdote.— The Secret— Manners neglected. 

spirit of politeness. Whenever he meets a pnpil in the 
street, or in a public place, he should cordially recog- 
nize him. In this way and a thousand others, which, 
if he have the right spirit, will cost him nothing, he 
will cultivate true courtesy in his pupils. He can do it 
in this way more effectually than he can by formally 
lecturing upon the subject. True politeness will always 
win its true reciprocation. Two teachers were once 
walking together in the streets of a large town in Kew 
England. Several lads whom they met on the side- 
walk raised their caps as they exchanged the common 
salutations with one of the teachers. ^^What boys are 
these that pay you such attention as they pass?'' in- 
quired the other. '' They are my scholars," answered 
his friend. '* Your scholars ! Why how do you teach 
them to be so very polite ? Mine are pretty sure never 
to look at me ; and generally they take care to be on 
the other side of the street." ^^I am unable to tell, " 
said his friend; ^^I never say any thing about it. I 
usually bow to them, and they are as ready to bow to 
me." The whole secret consisted in this teacher's 
meeting his pupils in the spirit of kindness. 

I would not, however, discourage a teacher from ac- 
tually inculcating good manners by precept. It should 
indeed be done. The manners of pupils are too much 
neglected in most of our schools, and, I am sorry to say, 



66 THEORY AKB PHACTICE OF TEACHlN"^ 

Punctuality a cardinal virtue.— Dismiss punctually. 

in most of onr families. Our youth are growing tip 
with all the indei^endence of sturdy 3'oung republicansy 
— and^ in their pride of freedom from governmental re^ 
straint^ they sometimes show a want of respect for their 
seniors and superiors which is quite mortifying to all 
lovers of propriety. It is the teacher's province to 
counteract this ; and in order to do it well, he should 
possess the virtue of true courtesy, both in theory and 
practice. 

4. Punctuality. — This, as a hahit, is essential to 
the teacher. He should be punctual in every thing. 
He should always be present at or before the time for 
opening the school. A teacher who goes late to school 
once a week, or even once a month, cannot very well 
enforce the punctual attendance of his pupils. I once 
knew a man who for seven long years was never late 
at school a single minute, and seldom did he fail to 
reach his place more than five minutes before the time. 
I never knew but one such. I have known scores who 
were frequently tardy, and sometimes by the space of 
a whole liour I 

A teacher should be as punctual in dismissing as in 
opening his school. I know that some make a virtue 
of keeping their schools beyond the regular hours. I 
have always considered this a very questionable virtue. 
It a teacher wishes to stay beyond his time; it shoul4 b« 



PERSON^AL HABITS OF THE TEACHER 67 



Regular study.— Time for it. 



eiciiei* with delinquents, who have some lessons to make 
up, or with those who voluntarily remain. But, after 
all, if he has been strictly punctual to the hours as- 
signed for his various duties in school, there will scarcely 
be the necessity for him or any of his pupils to remain 
beyond the time for dismission ; and, as a general rule, 
a regard both for his own health and theirs should for- 
bid this. It is better to work diligently v/hile one does 
work, and not to protract the time of labor so as to 
destroy one^s energy for to-morrow. 

This habit of punctuality should run through every 
thing. He should be punctual at all engagements ; he 
should be studiously so in all the detail of school exer- 
cises ; he should be so at his meals, at his private 
studies, at his hour of retiring at night and of rising in 
the morning, and also at his exercise and recreation. 
This is necessary to a truly exemplary character, and 
it is equally as necessary to good health. 

5. Habits of Study. — Unless the teacher takes care 
to furnish his own mind, he will soon find his present 
stock of knowledge, however liberal that may be, fading 
from his memory and becoming unavailablco To pre- 
vent this, and to keep along with every impro?<?ment, 
he should regularly pursue a course of study^ I say 
regularly ; for in order to accomplish anything really 
desirable; he must do something every day. By strict 



GS THEORY AXD PRACTICE OF TEACBOGi 



A lii^li standard. 



system in all liis arrangements he may find time to do 
it ; and whenever I am told by a teacher that he camiot 
find time to study, I always infer that there is a want of 
ordei in his arrangements, or a want of punctuality in 
the observance of that order„ Human life indeed is 
short ; but most men still further abridge the period 
allotted to them, by a disregard of system. 



What has now been said upon the ieac/ier's spirit, the 
teacher's responsiUUtij, and the teacher' s personal liaUts, 
will embody perhaps my views upon the character of 
tlie individual who may be encouraged to engage in 
the work of teaching. Nor do I think the require- 
ments in this department have been overstated. I 
know, indeed, that too many exercise the teacher''s 
functions without the teacher's spirit as here described, 
and without the sense of responsibility here insisted on^ 
and with habits entirely inconsistent with those here 
required. But this does not prove that such teachers 
have chosen the right calling, or that the children 
under their care are under safe and proper guidance. 
It proves rather that parents and school officers have 
too often neglected to be vigilant, or that suitable 
teachers could not be had. 

Let none think of lowering the standard to what has 
been or what may even now be that of a majority of 



PERSON-AL HABITS OF THE TEACHER 69 



Excelsior ! 



those who are engaged in this profession. Every young 
teacher^s eye should be directed to the very best model 
in this work ; and he should never be satisfied with 
bare mediocrity. Excelsior, the motto of the Empire 
StatC;, may well be the motto of the youns: teacher 



CHAPTER IV 

LITERARY QUALIFICATIOl^S OF THE TEACHER 

I AM now about to enter an extensive field. Since 
the teacher is to be the life of the school, it is of 
great consequence that he have within him the means 
of sustaining life. 

As the statutes in many of the States prescribe the 
minitmwi of attainment for the teacher, I might per- 
haps spare myself the labor of writing on this point. 
Yet in a thorough work on the Theory and Practice 
of Teaching, this very properly comes under considera- 
tion. 

The profession of teaching is advancing. The pres- 
ent standard of acquirement demanded of the teacher 
excludes many who were considered quite respectable 
in their vocation ten years ago. This may well be so ; 
for within that time quite an advance has been made in 
the compensation offered to teachers. It is but reason- 
able that acquirement should keep pace with the reward 
of it. Indeed, the talent and attainment brought into 
the field must always be in advance of the rate of com- 
pensation. The people must be first convinced that 
teachers are better than they were years ago, and thei; 

(70) 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 71 



What a teacner ought to know. 



they will be ready to reward them. In Massachusetts, 
according to statistics in the possession of the Hon. 
Horace Mann, Secretary of the Board of Education, 
the compensation of teachers within ten years has ad- 
vanced thirty-three per cent. ; nor is it reasonable to 
suppose that this advance has been made independent 
of any improvement among the teachers. Their system 
of supervision has increased in strictness during this 
time in an equal ratio ; and many teachers who were 
entirely incompetent for their places have thus been 
driven to other employments. The cause is still on- 
ward ; and the time is not far distant when the people 
will demand still more thorough teachers for the com- 
mon schools, and they will find it for their interest to 
pay for them. 

Under these circumstances, it will not be my design 
to give the very lowest qualifications for a teacher at 
present. I shall aim to describe those which a teacher 
ought to 2)0ssess, in order to command, for some time to 
come, the respect of the enlightened part of the com- 
munity. I will not say that a man with less attainment 
than I shall describe may not keep a good school; I 
have no doubt that many do. Yet if our profession is 
to be really respectable, and truly deserving of the re- 
gard of an enlightened people, we must have a still 
higher standard of (qualification than I skall now insist 



72 THEOEY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Ortliograpiiy.— Our Alphabet.— Elementaiy sounds. 

on. The follovring is a list of the studies of which 
every teacher should have a competent knowledge. I 
add also to each such word of comment as appears to 
be necessary. 

1. Orthogkapiiy. — This implies something more 
than mere sjjelling. Spelling is certainly indispensable. 
Xo person should ever think of teaching, who is not an 
accurate speller. But the nature and potve7's of letters 
should also be mastered. We have in our language about 
forty elementary sounds ; yet we have but twenty-six 
characters to represent them. Our alphabet is there- 
fore imperfect. This imperfection is augmented by 
the fact that several of the letters are employed each to 
represent several different sounds. In other cases, two 
letters combined represent the element. There are also 
letters, as c, q, and x, which have no sound that is not 
fully represented by other letters. Then a very large 
number of our letters are silent in certain positions, 
while they are fully sounded in others. It were much 
to be desired that we might have a perfect alphabet, 
that is, as many characters as we have elementary 
sounds, and that each letter should have but one sound. 
For the present this cannot be ; and the present genera- 
tion of teachers, at least, will have to teach our present 
orthography. Those systems of orthography are much 
to be preferred which begin with the elementary sounds, 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIOKS 73 

Normal chart.— Few good readers. 

and then present the letters as their representatives, 
together with the practice of analyzing words into their 
elements, thus showing at once the silent letters and 
the equivalents. These systems may be taught in half 
the time that the old systems can be ; and when ac- 
quired they are of much greater practical utility to the 
learner. As my views have been more fully presented 
in the ''Normal Chart of Elementary Sounds/'' 
prepared for the use of schools, I will only refer the 
reader to that work. 

2. Reading. — Every teacher should be a good 
reader. Not more than one in every hundred among 
teacliers can now be called a good reader. To be able 
to read well, implies a quick perception of the meaning 
as well as a proper enunciation of the words. It is a 
branch but poorly taught in most of our schools. 
Many of the older pupils get above reading before 
they have learned to read well; and, unfortunately, 
many of our teachers cannot awaken an interest in the 
subject, because very likely they cannot read any better 
than their scholars. 

It would be interesting to ascertain how large a 
proportion of our youth leave the schools without 
acquiring the power readily to take the sense of any 
common paragraph which they may attempt to read, 



74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Mr. Mann's statement.— Hard labor. 

I am inclined to triink the number is not small.* In 
this way I account for the fact that so many cease to 
read as soon as they leave school. It costs them so 
much effort to decipher the meaning of a book, that it 
counteracts the desire for the gratification and improve- 
ment it might otherwise afford. It should not be so. 
The teacher should be a model of good reading ; he 
should be enthusiastic in this branch, and never rest 
till he has excited the proper interest in it among the 
pupils, from the oldest to the youngest, in the school. 

» Since writing tlie above, my eye has fallen upon the following-, from 
the second Annual Report of the Secretary of the Mass. Board of Educa- 
tion. "I have devoted," says Mr. Mann, "especial pains to learn, Avith 
some degree of numerical accuracy, how far the reading in our schools is 
an exercise of the mind in thinking and feeling, and how far it is a barren 
action of the organs of speech upon the atmosphere. My information is 
derived principally fi-om the Avritten statements of the school committees 
of the different towns,— gentlemen who are certainly exempt from all 
temptation to disparage the schools they superintend. The result Is that 
more than eleven-twelfths of all the children in the reading classes in our 
schools do not understand the meaning of the words they read ; that they 
do not master the sense of their reading lessons ; and that the ideas and 
feelings intended by the author to be conveyed to and excited in the 
reader's mind, still rest in the author's intention, never having yet reached 
the place of their destination. It would hardly seem that the combined 
efforts of all persons engaged could have accomplished more in defeating 
the true objects of reading. How the cause of this deficiency is to be 
apportioned among the legal supervisors of the schools, parents, teachers, 
and authors of text-books, it is impossible to say ; but sui'ely it is an evil, 
gratuitous, widely-prevalent, and threatening the most alarming conse- 
quences.'^ 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 75 

Analysis of words.— Writing.— Geograpliy.— History. 

It would be well if our teachers could be somewhat 
acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages, as this 
would afford them great facilities in comprehending 
and defining many of our own words. As this cannot 
be expected for the present, a substitute may be sought 
in some analysis of our derivative words. Several 
works have somewhat recently been prepared, to sup- 
ply, as far as may be, the wants of those who have not 
studied the classics. I should advise every teacher, for 
his own benefit, to master some one of these. 

3. WiiiTiK^G. — It is not respectable for the teacher 
of the young to be a bad writer; nor can it ever become 
so, even should the majority of bad writers continue to 
increase. The teacher should take great pains to write 
a plain, legible hand. This is an essential qualification. 

4. Geography. — A knowledge of the principles of 
Geography is essential. This implies an acquaintance 
with the use of globes, and the art of map-drawing. 
The teacher should be so well versed in geography that 
with an outline map of any country before him, he 
could give an intelligent account of its surface, people, 
resources, history, &c. ; and if the outline map were 
not at hand, he ought to be able to draw one from 
memory, — at least, of each of the grand divisions of 
the earth, and of the United States. 

5. History, The teacher should be acquainted with 



76 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Mental Arithmetic— Anecdotes.— Desirable result. 

history, — at least, the history of the United States. He 
can hardly teach geography successfully without a com- 
petent knowledge of both ancient and modern history. 
It should, in the main, be taught in our common schools 
in connection with geography. 

6. Mental Arithmetic. — Let every teacher be 
thoroughly versed in some good work on this subject. 
Colburn^s was the first, and it is probably the best that 
has been prepared. That little book has done more 
than any other for the improvement of teaching in this 
country. It is not enough that the teacher is able in 
some way to obtain the anstuers to the questions pro- 
posed. He should be able to give the reason for every 
step in the process he takes to obtain them, and to do 
it in a clear and concise manner. It is this Avhich con- 
stitutes the value of this branch as a discipluie for the 
mind. 

I may never forget my first introduction to this work. 
On entering an academy as a student, in 1827, after I 
had ^^ ciphered through^' some four or five arithmetics 
on the old plan, my teacher asked me if I had ever 
studied Mental Arithmetic, extending to me the little 
book above named. '^^ No, sir." ^*^ Perhaps you would 
like to do so." I opened to the first page, and saw this 
question : ^^ How many thumbs have you on your right 
band ? " This was enough ; the color came into my 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIOKS 77 

Principles above rules.— Arithmetic a certain science. 

face and I pettishly replied, "I think I can find out 
the number of my thumbs without studying a hook for 
it." "But," said the teacher, "many of our young 
men have studied it and they think they have been 
profited. If you will take it, and turn over till you find 
a little exercise for your mind, I think you will like it. " 
His manner was open and sincere, and I took the little 
book. In three weeks I had mastered it ; and I had 
gained, in that time, more knowledge of the principles 
of arithmetic than I had ever acquired in all my life be- 
fore. I no longer "saw through a glass darkly." 

7. Written- Arithmetic. — This everybody demands 
of the teacher ; and he is scarcely in danger of being 
without fair pretensions in this branch. He should, 
however, know it by its principles, rather than by its 
rules and facts. He should so understand it, that if 
every arithmetic in the world should be burned, he 
could still make another, constructing its rules and 
explaining their principles. He should understand 
arithmetic so well that he could teach it thoroughly 
though all text-books should be excluded from his 
school-room. This is not demanding too much. Arith- 
metic is a certain science, and used every day of one's 
life, — the teacher should be an entire master of it. 

8. English Grammar. — It is rare that a teacher is 
found without some pretensions to English Grammar J 



fS THEORY A^iy PRlcflCE OF TEACHING 

Bigotry in grammar.— Cause of it.— One book.— Algebra. 

yet it is deplorable to observe how very few have any 
liberal or philosophical acquaintance with it. In many 
cases it is little else than a system of barren technical- 
ities. The teacher studies 07ie book, and too often takes 
that as his creed. In no science is it more necessary to 
be acquainted with several authors. The person who has 
studied but one text-book on grammar, even if that be 
the best one extant, is but poorly qualified to teach this 
branch. There is a philosophy of language which the 
teacher should carefully study ; and if within his power 
he should have some acquaintance with the peculiar 
structure of other languages besides his own. It can 
hardly be expected that the common teacher should 
acquire an accurate knowledge of other languages by 
actually studying them. As a substitute for this, I 
would recommend that the teacher should very care- 
fully read the little work of De Sacy on General Gram- 
mar ; also the article '^Grammar" in the Edinburgh 
and other encyclops^dias. In this science the mind 
naturally runs to Mgotry ; and there is no science 
where the learner is apt to be so conceited upon small 
acquirements as in grammar. Let the teacher spare no 
pains to master this subject. 

9. Algebra. — This branch is not yet required to be 
taught in all our schools ; yet the teacher should have a 
thorough acquaintance with it. Even if he is never 



LlfEfiAfiY QUALIFICATION^ W 

Geometry. —Surveying. —Natural Phllosopliy. 

called upon to teach it, (and it never should be intro- 
duced into our common schools till very thorough 
attainments are more common in the other branches), 
still it so much improves the mind of the teacher that 
he should not be without a knowledge of it. He will 
teach simple arithmetic much better for knowing 
algebra. I consider an acquaintance with it indispen- 
sable to the thorough teacher, even of the common 
school. 

10. Geometry. — The same may be said of this 
branch that has been said of algebra. Probably nothing 
disciplines the mind more effectually than the study of 
geometry. The teacher should pursue it for this 
reason. He will teach other things the better for hav- 
ing had this discipline, to say nothing of the advantage 
which a knowledge of the principles of geometry will 
give him in understanding and explaining the branches 
of mathematics. 

11. Plane Trigonometry and Surveying. — In 
many of our schools these branches are required to be 
taught. They are important branches in themselves, 
and they also afford good exercise for the mind in their 
acquisition. The young teacher, especially the male 
teacher, should make the acquirement. 

12. Natural Philosophy. — This branch is not 
taught iu most of our district schools. The teacher; 



80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Cliemistry.— Physiology. 

however, should understand it better than it is presented 
in many of the simple text-books on this subject. He 
should have studied the philosophy of its principles, 
and be fully acquainted with their demonstration. If 
possible he should have had an opportunity also of 
seeing the principles illustrated by experiment. This 
is a great field ; let not the teacher be satisfied with 
cropping a little of the herbage about its borders. 

13. Chemistry. — As a matter of intelligence the 
teacher should have acquaintance with this branch. It 
is comparatively a new science, but it is almost a 
science of miracles. It is beginning to be taught in 
our common schools ; and that department of it which 
relates to agriculture is destined to be of vast import- 
ance to the agricultural interests of our country. '^In- 
stead of conjecture, and hazard, and doubt, and 
experiment, as heretofore, a knowledge of the compo- 
sition of soils, the food of plants, and the processes of 
nature in the culture and growth of crops, would 
elevate agriculture to a conspicuous rank among the 
exact sciences. '' * The teacher should not be behind 
the age in this department. 

14. Human Physiology. — The teacher should well 
understand this subject. There is an unpardonable 
ignorance in the community as to the structure of the 

• Col. Young. 



LITERARY QUALIFICATION'S 81 

Dr. WgocUvard's opinion.— Quackery. 

human body, and the laAVS of health, the observance of 
which is, in general, a condition of longevity, not to 
say of exemption from disease. By reference to sta- 
tistics it has been ascertained that almost a fourth part 
of all the children that are born die before they are one 
year old. More than one-third die before they are five 
years of age ; and before the age of eight more than 
one-half of all that are born return again to the earth I 
Of those who survive, how many suffer the miseries of 
lingering disease, almost sighing for death to deliver 
them from the pangs of life ! There is something de- 
plorably wrong in our philosophy of living, else the 
condition of man would not so commonly appear an 
exception to the truth that God does all things well.* 
Dr. Woodward, late of the Massachusetts State Lunatic 
Hospital, says : ''From the cradle to the grave, we 
suller punishment for the violation of the laws of health 
and life. I have no doubt that half the evils of life 

^ "It is tlie vast field of ignorance pertaining to these subjects in whicli 
quackery thrives and fattens. No one who linows anything of tlie organs 
and functions of the human system, and of the properties of those objects 
in nature to which that system is related, can hear a quaclc descant upon 
the miraculous virtues of his nostrums, or can read his advertisements in 
the newspapers —wherein, fraudulently towards man and impiously 
towards God, he promises to sen an ' Elixir of Life,' or ' The Balm of Im- 
mortality,' or 'Resurrection Pills,'— without contempt for his ignorance 
or detestation of his guilt . Could the quack administer his nostrums to the 
great enemy. Death, then indeed ive might expect to live forever ! "— 
Horace Mann. 



82 THEOKY AITD PEACTICE OF TEACHING 

Intellectual and Moral Plnlosopliy. 

and half the deaths that occur among mankind arise 
from ignorance of these natural laws ; and that a 
thorough knowledge of them would diminish the suffer- 
ings incident to our present state of being in very nearly 
the same proportion." I know not how an acquaintance 
with these laws can be in any way so readily extended 
as through the agency of our teachers of the young. 
At any rate the teacher himself should understand 
them, both for his own profit and the means thus 
afforded him of being directly useful in the discharge 
of his duties to others. I have already shown that he 
is responsible to a great extent for the bodily health of 
his pupils. A thorough knowledge of physiology will 
enable him to meet this responsibility. 

15. Intellectual Philosophy. — This is necessary 
for the teacher. His business is with the mind. He, 
of all men, should know something of its laws and its 
nature. He can know something, indeed, by obser- 
vation and introspection ; but he should also learn by 
careful study. His own improvement demands it, and 
his usefulness depends upon it. 

16. Moral Philosophy. — A knowledge of this may 
be insisted on for the same reasons which apj^ly to 
intellectual philosophy. It is so important that the 
moral nature of the child be rightly dealt with, that he 
is a presumptuous man who attempts the work without 
the most careful attention to this subject. 



tiTERAIlY QUALIFlCAtlOKS ^{^ 

Rhetoric and Logic— Bookkeeping. 

17. Rhetoric axd Logic. — These ai-e of great ser- 
vice to the teacher personally, as means of mental 
discipline and the cultivation of his own taste. Even 
if he is never to teach them, they will afford him much 
assistance in other departments of instruction. He 
certainly should have the advantage of them. 

18. Book-keeping. — Every teacher should know 
something of book-keeping, at least by single entry ; 
and also be conversant with the ordinary forms of 
business. The profound ignorance on this subject 
among teachers is truly astonishing.* Book-keeping 
should be a common-school study. In looking over 
the able Eeport of the Superintendent of Common 
Schools in New York, I notice in fifty-three counties, 
during the winter of 1845-6, that among 225,540 pupils 
in the common schools only 922 studied book-keeping ! 
That is a study which in practical life comes home to 
the interest not only of every merchant, but of every 
farmer, every mechanic, in short, every business man, 
but it is almost entirely neglected in the schools, — while 

* A teacher, who had kept a private school, was met in a country store 
one day hy one of his patrons, who paid him for the tuition of his child, 
asking at the same time for a receipt. The teacher stared vacantly at his 
patron. " Just give me a hit of paper, " said the patron, " to show you've 
got the money." "Oh, yes, sir, " said the teacher ; and taking a pen and 
paper, wi'ote the following : 

" iw^ I have got the money. 



84 THEORY AND PiiACTlCE OE TEACHIKa 

Anecdote.— Science of Government. 

it is yet true that our courts of justice display evidences 
of the most deplorable ignorance in this important art. 
Some still keep their accounts on bits of paper ; others 
use books, bat without any system, order, or intelligi- 
bility ; and others still mark their scores in chalk or 
charcoal upon the panel of the cellar-door ! 

The teacher should qualify himself not only to un- 
derstand this subject, but to teach it in such a way 
that it can be easily comprehended by the classes in our 
common schools. 

19. Science of Government. — The teacher should 
at least be well acquainted with the history and genius 
of our own government, the constitution of the United 
States and of his own State. In a republican govern- 
ment, it is of great importance that the young, who are 
to take an active part in public measures as soon as 
they arrive at the age of twenty-one, should before that 
time be made acquainted with some of their duties and 
relations as citizens. This subject has been introduced 
successfully into many of our common schools ; but 
whether it is to be matter of formal teaching or not, 
it is a disgrace* to a teacher and to his profession 

* Not long since a teacher of a public school afforded lasting- amusement 
for the hangers-on at a country grocery. He was jeered for helonging to 
the whig party hy which Mr. Tyler was brought into power. "No, no," 
said he, "I voted for Gen. Harrison, but / never voted for John Tyler.'* 
'"• How did you do that ? " inquired a by-stander. " Why I cut Tyler's name 
off of the ticket, to be sui'e !" 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 85 

Drawing.— Vocal Music— Safety valve. 

to be ignorant of the provisions of the constitution for 
the mode of choosing our rulers. 

20. Drawing. — The good teacher should understand 
the principles of drawing. He should also be able to 
practise this art. It is of great consequence to him. 
Without neglect of other things children can be very 
profitably taught this art in the common schools. In 
the absence of apparatus^ it is the teacher's only way 
of addressing the eye of his pupils in illustrating his 
teaching. Every teacher should take pains, not only 
to draw, but to draw well. 

21. Vocal Music. — It is not absolutely essential, 
though very desirable, to the good teacher, that he 
should understand music, theoretically and practically. 
Music is becoming an exercise in our best schools ; 
and wherever introduced and judiciously conducted it 
has been attended with pleasing results. It promotes 
good reading and speaking by disciplining the ear to 
distinguish sounds ; and it also facilitates the cultiva- 
tion of the finer feelings of our nature. It aids very 
much in the government of the school, as its exorcise 
gives vent to that restlessness which otherwise would 
find an escapement in boisterous noise and whispering, 
— and thus it often proves a safety valve, through 
which a love of vociferation and activity may pass off 
in a more harmless and a more pleasing way. ^' The 



S6 THEORY AN^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Martin Lutlier.— Remarks.— General knowledge desirable. 

schoolmaster that cannot sing, " says Martin Luther, 
^'^ I would not look upon." Perhaps this language is 
too strong ; but it is usually more pleasant to look upon 
a school where the schoolmaster can sing. 



I have thus gone through with a list of studies which, 
it seems to me, every one who means to he a good 
teacher, even of a common school, should make himself 
acquainted with. I would not condemn a teacher who, 
having other good qualities, and a thorough scholarship 
as far as he has gone, might lack several of the 
branches above named. There have been many good 
teachers without all this attainment ; but how much 
better they might have been with it ! 

I have made this course of study as limited as I 
possibly could, taking into view the present condition 
and wants of our schools. No doubt even more will 
be demanded in a few years. I would have the present 
race of teachers so good that they shall be looked upon 
by those who succeed them as their " worthy a7id effi- 
cient jjredecessors ". 

I ought in this place to add that the teacher increases 
his influence, and consequently his usefulness, in pro- 
portion as he makes himself conversant with general 
l^nowledge, This is too much neglected. The teacher. 



LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 87 

A suggestion. 

by the fatigue of his employment and the circumstances 
of his life, is strongly tempted to content himself with 
what he already knows, or at best to confine himself to 
the study of those branches which he is called upon to 
teach. He should stoutly resist this temptation. 11(3 
should always have some course of study marked out 
which he will systematically pursue. He should, as 
soon as possible, make himself acquainted generally 
with the subject of astronomy, the principles of 
geology, in short, the various branches of natural his- 
tory. He will find one field after another open before 
him, and if he will but have the perseverance to press 
forward, even in the laborious occupation of teaching, 
he may make himself a well-informed man. 

I will venture one other suggestion. I have found 
it a most profitable thing in the promotion of my own 
improvement, to take up annually, or oftener, some 
particular subject to be pursued with reference to 
writing an extended lecture upon it. This gives point 
to the course of reading, and keeps the interest fixed. 
When the thorough investigation has been made, let 
the lecture be written from memory, embodying all the 
prominent- points, and presenting them in the most 
striking and systematic manner. It should be done, 
too, with reference to accuracy and even elegance of 
style, so that the composition may be yearly improved. 



88 THEOKY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

A point gained. 

In this way certain subjects are forever fixed in the 
mind. One who carefully reads for a definite object, 
and afterwards writes the results from memory, never 
loses his hold upon the facts thus appropriated. 



CHAPTER V 

RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION 

EVERY teacher^ before lie begins the work of in- 
struction, should have some definite idea of what 
constitutes an education ; otherwise he may work to 
very little purpose. The painter who would execute 
a beautiful picture must have beforehand a true and 
clear conception of beauty in his own mind. The same 
may be said of the sculptor. That rude block of mar- 
ble, unsightly to the eyes of other men, contains the 
godlike form, the symmetrical ])roportion, the life-like 
attitude of the finished and polished statue ; and the 
whole is as clear to his mental eye before the chisel is 
applied as it is to his bodily vision when the work is 
completed. With this perfect ideal in the mind at the 
outset, every stroke of the chisel has its object. JSTot 
a blow is struck, but it is guided by consummate skill; 
]K)t a. chip is removed, but to develop the ideal of the 
artist. And when the late Uxisight ly marble, as if by 
miraculous power, stands out before the astonished 
spectator in all tlie perfection of beauty, — when it 
almost breathes and speaks, — it is to tlie artist but the 
realization of his own conception. 

(89) 



90 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A spectator's efforts.— The difference. 

Now let the same astonished and delighted spectator, 
with the same instruments, attempt to produce another 
statue from a similar block. On this side he scores too 
deep ; on the other he leaves a protuberance ; here by 
carelessness he encroaches upon the rounded limb ; 
there by accident he hews a chip from off the nose ; by 
want of skill one eye ill-mates the other ; one hand is 
distorted as if racked by pangs of the gout ; the other 
is paralyzed and deathlike. Such would be his signal 
failure. Thus he might fail a thousand times. Indeed 
it would be matter of strange surprise if in a thousand 
efforts he should once succeed. 

Now the difference between the artist and the spec- 
tator lies chiefly in this, — the one knows beforehand 
what he means to do; the other works without any 
plan. The one has studied beauty till he can see it in 
the rugged block ; the other only knows it when it is 
presented to him. The former, having an ideal, pro- 
duces it with unerring skill ; the latter, having no 
conception to guide him, brings out deformity. 

''What sculpture is to the block of marble, " says 
Addison, ''education is to the human soul ;" and may 
I not add that the sculptor is a type of the true educa- 
tor, — while the spectator, of whom I have been speak- 
ing, may aptly represent too many false teachers who 
without study or forethought enter upon the delicate 



RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION" 91 



Blindness of employers.— Illustrated. 



business of fashioning tlie linman soul, blindly experi- 
menting amidst the wreck of their heaven-descended 
material, maiming and marring, with scarcely the pos- 
sibility of final success, — almost with the certainty of a 
melancholy failure ! 

In other things besides education men are wiser. 
They follow more the teachings of nature and of com- 
mon sense. But in education, where a child has but 
one opportunity for mental training, as he can be a 
child but once, — where success, unerring success, is 
everything to him for time and eternity, and where a 
mistake may be most ruinous to him, — in education 
men often forget their ordinary wisdom and providence 
and commit the most important concerns to the most 
incompetent hands. ''The prevailing opinions,'' says 
Geo. B. Emerson, '' in regard to this art are such as 
the common sense of mankind and the experience of 
centuries have shown to be absurd as to every other art 
and pursuit of civilized life. To be qualified to dis- 
course upon our moral and religious duties, a man 
must be educated by years of study ; to be able to 
administer to the body in disease, he must be educated 
by a careful examination of the body in health and in 
disease, and of the effects produced on it by external 
agents ; to be able to make out a conveyance of prop- 
erty, or to draw a writ^ he must be educated ; to 



92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Many poor teachers.— Defects in teaching. 

navigate a ship he must be educated by years of 
service before the mast or on the quarter-deck ; to 
transfer the products of the earth or of art from the 
producer to the consumer, he must be educated ; to 
make a hat or a coat he must be educated by years of 
apprenticeship ; to make a plow he must be educated ; 
to make a nail, or a shoe for a horse or an ox, he must 
be educated : — but to prepare a man to do all these 
things ; — to train the body in its most tender years, ac- 
cording to the laws of health, so that it should be 
strong to resist disease ; to fill the mind with useful 
knowledge, to educate it to comprehend all the relations 
of society, to bring out all its powers into full and har- 
monious action ; to educate the moral nature, in which 
the very sentiment of duty resides, that it may be fitted 
for an honorable and worthy fulfilment of the public 
and private offices of life ; to do all this is supposed to 
require no study, no apprenticeship, no preparation ! " 
Many teachers, therefore, encouraged by this unac- 
countable indifference in the community, have entered 
the teachers^ profession without any idea of the respon- 
sibilities assumed or of the end to be secured by their 
labors, aside from receiving, at the close of their term, 
the compensation for their service in dollars and cents. 
And even many who have entered this profession with 
good intentions, have made the most deplorable mis-, 



RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATIOK 93 

Knowledge may be unsafe. 

takes from a want of an adequate idea of what consti- 
tutes an education. Too often lias educating a cliild 
been considered simply the act of imparting to it a 
certain amount of knowledge, or of ''^ carrying it 
through" a certain number of studies more or less. 
Education has too frequently been held to be a cultiva- 
tion of the intellectual to the neglect of the moral 
powers ; and the poor body, too, except among savages, 
has had but little share in its privileges or benefits. In 
a very large number of our schools the physical and the 
moral have both been sacrificed to the intellectual. 
Even some of our public speakers have dwelt upon the 
necessity of Melligence to the perpetuity of our free 
institutions, scarcely seeming to be aware that intelli- 
gence, without moral principle to direct and regulate 
it, might become the very engine through which evil 
men might effect our overthrow. Who has not seen 
that an educated man without virtue is but the more 
capable of doing evil ? Who does not know that 
knowledge misdirected becomes, instead of a boon to be 
desired, a bane to be deprecated ? 

From what has been said I place it among the 
highest qualifications of the teacher that he should have 
jttst vieius of education. I consider it all-important that 
he should have a well-defined object at which to aim, 
whenever he meets a young mind in the transition state. 



94 THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHIN'CJ 

A great question. 

He should have an ideal of a well-educated human 
soul, tenanting a healthy, well-developed human body ; 
an ideal which he at once and systematically labors to 
reach, as does the sculj)tor when he commences his 
work upon the quarried marble. '' What is it to educate 
a human being aright ?^^ should be one of the first 
questions the candidate for the teacher's office should 
ask himself with the deepest seriousness. I say the 
candidate ; for this question should be settled if possible 
hefove he begins his work. It is a great question, and 
he may not be able to answer it in a day. Let him 
consult the dictates of his own mind, — let him consult 
the teachings of experience and of wisdom as they are 
to be found in the writings of Milton, Locke, Wyse, 
Cousin, Brougham, and others of the eastern continent, 
and of Wayland, Potter, Mann, G. B. Emerson, Dwight, 
and others of our own countrymen. Let him, enlight- 
ened by all this, carefully observe human nature around 
him ; consider its tendencies, its wants, and its capa- 
bilities ; and after a patient survey of all the truth he 
can discover upon the subject, let him come to an 
honest conclusion as to what is a correct answer to the 
query with which he started — " What is it to educate a 
human being aright ? '' 

The conclusions of the honest and intelligent inquirer 
after the truth in this matter, will be something like the 



EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION- 95 



Results of Inquiry.— Knowledge not undervalued. 



following :— That education (from e and diico, to lead 
forth) is development ; that it is not instruction merely— 
knowledge, facts, rules— communicated by the teacher, 
but it is discipline, it is a waking up of the mind, a 
growth of the mind,— growth by a healthy assimilation 
of wholesome aliment. It is an inspiring of the mind 
with a thirst for knowledge, growth, enlargement,— and 
then a disciplining of its powers so far that it can go on 
to educate itself. It is the arousing of the child's mind 
to think, without thinking for it; it is the awakening 
of its powers to observe, to remember, to reflect, to 
combine. It is not a cultivation of the memory to the 
neglect of everything else ; but it is a calling forth of 
all the faculties into harmonious action. If to possess 
facts simply is education, then an encyclopifidia is 
better educated than a man. 

It should be remarked that though knowledge is not 
education, yet there will be no education without knowl- 
edge. Knowledge is ever an incident of true education. 
No man can be properly educated without the acquisi- 
tion of knowledge; the mistake is in considering 
knowledge the end when it is either the incident or the 
means of education. The discipline of the mind, then, is 
the great thing in intellectual training ; and the ques- 
tion is not, how much have I acquired ?— but, how have 
my powers been strengthened in the act of acquisition ? 



96 TlIEOllY AN}) PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

The body— tlie intellect— the heart. —Mr. Fox. 

Nor should the intellectual be earlier cultivated than 
the moral powers of the mind. The love of moral 
trutli should ho as early addressed as the love of 
knowledge, 'i'lic conscience should he early exercised 
in jiidgnig of the character of the pupil's own acts, and 
every opportunity afforded to strengthen it by legitimate 
use. Nor should the powers of the mind be earlier 
cultivated than those of the body. It is the theory of 
some, indeed, that the body should engross most of the 
attention for several of the first years of childhood. 
This, I think, is not nature's plan. She cultivates all 
the powers at once, — the body, mind, and heart. So 
should the teacher do. '' Education, " in the pertinent 
language of Mr. Fox,* ^^has reference to the ^vJwle mem, 
the body, the mind, and the heart ; its object, and, 
when rightly conducted, its effect is, to make him a 
complete creature after his kind. To his frame it 
would give vigor, activity, and beauty ; to his senses, 
correctness and acuteness ; to his intellect, power and 
truthfulness ; to his heart, virtue. The educated man 
is not the gladiator, nor the scholar, nor the uj^right 
man, alone ; but a just and well-balanced combination 
of all three. Just as the educated tree is neither the 
large root, nor the giant branches, nor the rich foliage, 
but all of them together. If you would mark the per- 

* Lectui-e before the Am. Institute, 1835. 



RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION 97 

Egregious mistakes.—" Good scliolars. ''—"Poor scholars. " 

feet mail, you must not look for him in the circus^ the 
university, or the church, exclusively ; but you must 
look for one who has ' 7nens sana in corpore sa7io' — a 
healthful mind in a healthful body. The being in 
whom you find this union, is the only one worthy to 
be called educated. To make all men such, is the object 
of education. " 

I have dwelt thus fully on this subject, because it is 
so obvious that egregious mistakes are made in educa- 
tion. How many there are who are called '^good 
scholars'" in our schools, of whom we hear nothing after 
they go forth into the world. Their good scholarship 
consists in that which gives them no impulse to go on 
to greater attainments by themselves. Their learning 
is either that of reception — as the sponge takes in water 
— or that of mere memory. Their education is not 
discipline ; it kindles none of those desires which 
nothing but further j)i'ogress can satisfy ; it imparts 
none of that self-reliance which nothing but impossi- 
bilities can ever subdue. While these are pointed out 
by their teachers as the ornaments of their schools, 
there are others known, as the heavy, dull, ^^poor 
scholars ^\ in no way distinguished but by their stu- 
pidity, — of whom no hopes are entertained because of 
them nothing is expected, — who in after-life fairly out- 
strip their fellows and strangely astonish their teachers. 



&8 THEORY A^D PRACTICE OF ^^EAOfitK^ 

Misjudgment of character. 

Almost every teacher of fifteen years^ experience hag 
noticed this-. Now, why is it so ? There must have 
been somehow in such cases a groiss misjudgment of 
character. Either those pupils who promised so much 
by their quickness, were educated wrong, and perhaps 
educated too much, while their teachers unwittingly 
and unintentionally educated their less distinguished 
companions far more judiciously ; or else, nature in 
such cases must be said to have been playing such odd 
pranks that legitimate causes could not produce their 
legitimate effects. We must charge nature as being 
extremely capricious, or we must allege that the teach- 
ers entirely misunderstood their work, failing where 
they expected most, and succeeding, as if by chance — 
almost against their will — where they expected least. I 
incline to the latter alternative ; and hence I infer that 
there is such a thing as teaching a mind naturally 
active too much — exciting it too much,— so that it will 
prematurely exhaust its energies and gladly settle back 
into almost imbecility ; and that there is such a thing 
as leaving the mind so much to its own resources, that 
without dazzling the beholder like the flash of the 
meteor when it glares upon the startled vision, it may 
be silently gathering materials to support the more en- 
during light of the morning-star which anon will arise 
in majesty and glory. 



EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION 90 

Nature at fault !— Certain results. 

It will be well for our youth when our teachers shall 
so understand human nature, and so comprehend the 
science and the art of education, that these mistakes 
shall seldom occur ; and when he Avho tills the nobler 
soil of the mind, shall, with as much faith and as much 
certainty as he who tills the literal field, rely upon the 
fulfilment of heaven^s unchangeable law : ^' Whatso- 
ever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. 



CHAPTER VI 

RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 

FROM what has been said of Education, it is very 
obvious that it is no small thing to be a successful 
teacher. It is admitted by all that the teacher should 
be APT to TEACH. He cannot be useful without this. 
He may have an unimpeachable character ; he may 
have the most liberal and thorough literary acquire- 
ments ; he may deeply feel his responsibility, and yet 
after all he may fail to teach successfully. 

Aptness to teach has been said to be a native endow- 
ment, a sort of instinct, and therefore incapable of 
being improved by experience or instruction, — an in- 
stinct such as that which guides the robin, though 
hatched in an oven, to build a perfect nest like that of 
its parent, without ever having seen one. I am of 
opinion that such instincts in men are rare ; but that 
aptness to teach, like aptness to do anything else, is 
usually an acquired power, based upon a correct knowl- 
edge of what is to be done, and some accurate estimate 
of the fitness of the means used for the end. If there 
are exceptions to this, they are very uncommon ; and 

the safer way, therefore, for the majority of teachers, 

(100) 



EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 101 

A mistake. 

is, to study carefully the rationale of their processes, 
and to rely rather upon sound and philosophical prin- 
ciples in their teaching, than upon a very doubtful 
intuition. 

One of the most common errors into which young 
teachers fall, (and some old ones too,) is that of mis- 
judging of the degree of assistance which the young 
scholar needs in the pursuit of learning. There are a 
few who forget the difficulties which impeded their own 
perception of new truths when learners, and therefore 
have no sympathy with the perplexities which surround 
the children under their charge when they encounter 
like difficulties. They refuse to lend a helping hand, 
even where it is needed, and by making light of the 
child's doubts, perhaps sneering at his unsuccessful 
struggles, they dishearten him so far that imaginary 
obstacles become insurmountable, and he gives up in 
despair. But a far more numerous class tend toward 
the other extreme. From a mistaken kindness, or a 
mistaken estimate of the chikFs ability, or both, they 
are disposed to do quite too much for him, and thus 
they diminish his power to help himself. The child 
that is constantly dandled upon the lap of its nurse, 
and borne in her arms to whatever point it may desire 
to 2:0 does not soon learn to walk ; and when it at 
length makes the attempt, it moves not with the firm 



102 THEORY AN-D PRACTICE OF TEACHIISTG 

The way literary nurselings are made.— Anecdote of folly.— Pourlng-in. 



tread of him who was early taught to use his own limbs. 
There is a great deal of literary dandling practised in 
our schools ; and as a consequence, a great many of 
our children are mere sickly nurselings, relying upon 
leading-strings while in the school, and falling, for 
very weakness, just as soon as the supporting hand is 
withdrawn. This evil is so common, and in some in- 
stances so monstrous,* that I shall be pardoned if I 
dwell upon it a little more fully. 

In illustrating this subject, I must mention two 
processes of teaching, not indeed exactly opposite to 
each other, though widely different, — into one or both 
of which many of our teachers are very liable to fall. 
I shall, for the sake of a name, designate the former as 
the 

SECTION I — POURING-IN PROCESS. 

This consists in lecturing to a class of children upon 
every subject which occurs to the teacher, it being his 
chief aim to bring before them as many facts in a 

* Not long since I visited a school, where the teacher with much self- 
complacency requested me to examine the writing of the children. It 
was Indeed very fair. But when I drew fi'om him the fact that he first 
wrote each page himself with a lead pencil, and only required his scholars 
to MacK, Ms marks over with ink; and that with unremitting lahor he did 
this week after weelv for all the writers in his school, I knew not which 
most to wonder at, the docility of the children or the weakness of the 
teacher. The wilting ceased to be wonderful. 



RIGHT MODES OP TEACHIKG 103 

The " oral hobby. "—Victims of liiadness.—Passive recipient. 

limitsd time as possible. It is as if he should provide 
himself with a basket of sweetmeats, and every time he 
should come within reach of a child, should seize him, 
and compel him to swallow — regardless of the condition 
of his stomach — whatever trash he should happen first 
to force into his mouth. Children are indeed fond of 
sweetmeats, but they do not like to have them admin- 
istered, — and every physiologist knows there is such a 
thing as eating enough even of an agreeable thing to 
make one sick, and thus produce loathing forever after. 
Now many teachers are just such misguided caterers 
for the mind. They are ready to seize upon the victims 
of their kindness, force open their mental gullets, and 
2iour in, without mercy and without discretion, wliat- 
ever sweet thing they may have at hand, even though 
they surfeit and nauseate the poor sufferer. The mind, 
by this process, becomes a mere passive recipient, taking 
in without much resistance whatever is presented till 
it is full. 

^^ A passive recipient !'^ said one to his friend, ^^what 
is n 2y(tssive recipients ^' A. passive recipient," re- 
plied his friend, ^' is a two-gallon jug. It holds just 
two gallons, and as it is made of potters' ware, it can 
never hold but just two gallons.'' This is not an unfit 
illustration of what I mean by making the mind a 
passive recipient. Whenever the teacher does not 



104 THEORY AJ^^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



A jug.— Mind weakened. 



first excite inquiry, first prepare the mind by loalcing it 
^q) to a desire to know, and if possible to find out by 
itself, but proceeds to tliink for the child, and to 
give him the results, before they are desired, or 
before they have been sought for, — he makes the 
mind of the child a ttoo-gallon jug, into which he 
may pour just two gallons, but no more. And 
if day after day he should continue to pour in, day 
after day he may expect that what he pours in will all 
run over. The mind, so far as retention is concerned, 
will act like the jug ; that is, a part of what is poured 
in to-day, will be diluted by a part of that which is 
forced in to-morrow, and that again will be partially 
disjDlaced and partially mingled with the next day^s 
pouring, till at length there will be nothing character- 
istic left. But aside from retention, there is a great 
difference between the jug and the mind. The former 
is inert material, and may be as good a jug after such 
use as before. But the mind suffers by every unsuc- 
cessful effort to retain. 

This process of lecturing children into imbecility is 
altogether too frequently practised ; and it is to be 
hoped, that intelligent teachers will pause and inquire 
before they j^nrsue it further. 

The other process to which I wish to call attention. 



EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 105 



Drawlng-out.— Leading questions.— An example. 



is that which, for the sake of distinguishing it from the 
tirst, I shall denominate the 

SECTION II — DRAWING-OUT PROCESS. 

This consists in asking v/hat the lawyers call leading 
questions. It is practised, usually, whenever the 
teacher desires to help along the pupil. "John/' says 
the teacher when conducting a recitation in Long 
Division, ''John, what is the number to he divided 
called ? " John hesitates. " Is it the dividend ? '' says 
the teacher. '' Yes, sir— the dividend. '' " Well, John, 
what is that which is left after dividing called ;•'— the 
remainder— is it ? "' " Yes, sir. " A visitor now enters 
the room, and tlie teaclier desires to show oil John's 
talents. ''Well, John, of what denomination is the 
remainder V 

John looks upon the floor. 

"Is n't it always the same as the dividend, John ?" 

" Yes, sir. " 

"Very well, John," says the teacher, soothingly, 
"what denomination is this dividend?'' pointing to 
the work upon the board. "Dollars, is it not ?" 

"Yes, sir; dollars." 

" Yery well ; now what is this remainder ?" 

John hesitates. 

"AVhy dollars too, isn't it ?" says the teacher, 



106 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHI^^G 

A spectator astonished.— Teaclxlng History ! 

'^Oh yes, sii% dollars!'' says John, energetically, 
while the teacher complacently looks at the visitor to 
see if he has noticed how correctly John has answered ! 

A class is called to be examined in History. They 
have committed the text-book to memory, that is, they 
have learned the words. They go on finely for a time. 
At length one hesitates. The teacher adroitly asks a 
question in the language of the text. Thus : ''Early 
171 the morning, on the 11th of 8e])temljer , what did the 
whole British army do?" The pupil, thus timely re- 
assured, proceeds : '' Early in the morning, 07i the 
11th of Se2)tem'ber, the ivhole British ao^my, drawn up in 
two divisions, commenced the expected assault." Here 
again she pauses. The teacher proceeds to inquire : 
^^Well, — ^Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the right 
wing ' did what ? " 

Pupil. — " Agreeably to the plan of Hoive, the inght 
wing — " 

Teacher. — '' The right luing, commanded iy whom ?" 

Pupil. — ^'Oh ! ' Agreeahly to the plan of Hoive, the 
right tving, commanded hy Knyphausen, made a feint 
gf crossing the Brandy wine at Chad^s Ford,^" etc. 

This is a very common way of helping a dull pupil 
put of a difficulty ; and I have seen it done so adroitly, 
^hat a company of visitors would agree that it was 
wonderful to see how thoroughly the children had 
^een instructed ! 



RIGHT MODES OF TEACHI^a 107 



A further example.— Yes, sir, 



I may further illustrate this drcmnng-ont process, by 
describiug an occurrence^ which, in company with a 
friend and fellow-laborer, I once witnessed. A teacher, 
whose school we visited, called upon the class in Col- 
burn's First Lessons. They rose, and in single file 
marched to the usual place, with their books in hand, 
and stood erect. It was a very good-looking class. 

'^ Where do you begin V said the teacher, taking the 
book. 

Pupils. — On the 80th page, 3d question. 

Teacher. — Read it, Charles. 

Charles. — (Beads.) " A man being asked how many 
oheep he had, said that he had them in two pastures ; 
in one pasture he had eight ; that three-fourths of 
these were just one-third of what he had in the other. 
How many were there in the other V 

Teacher. — Well, Charles, you must first get one- 
fourth of eight, must you not ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir. 

Teacher. — Well, one-fourth of eight is two, isn't it ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir ; one-fourth of eight is two. 

Teacher. — Well, then, three-fourths will be three 
times two, won't it ? 

Charles.— Yes, sir. 

Teacher. — Well, three times two are six, eh ? 

Charles.— Yqs, sir. 



108 THEORY AND PllACTICE OF TEACHING 

Hard mental labor.— An interposition. 

Teaclier. — Very well. (A 2:)aiise.) Now the book 
says that this six is just one-third of what he had in the 
other pasture^ don't it ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir. 

Teacher. — Then if six is one-third, three-thirds will 
be — three times six, won't it ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir. 

Teacher. — And three times six are — eighteen, ain't it ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir ! 

Teacher. — Then he had eighteen sheep in the other 
pasture, had he ? 

Charles. — Yes, sir I 

Teacher. — Next, take the next one. 

At this point I interposed, and asked the teacher if 
he would request Charles to go through it alone. 
"Oh, yes," said the teacher, ''Charles, you may do it 
again." Charles again read the question, and — looked 
up. ''Well," said the teacher, "You must first get 
one-fourth of eight, mustn't you?" "Yes, sir." 
"And one-fourth of eight is two, isn't it ?" "Yes, 
sir," And so the process went on as before till the 
final eighteen sheep were draton out as before. The 
teacher now looked round, with an air which seemed to 
say, "Now I suppose you are satisfied." 

"Shall /ask Charles to do it again ?" said I. The 
teacher assented. Charles again read the question. 



RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 109 

Process of extraction.— Study discouraged. 

and again — looked iij). I waited^ and lie waited ; — but 
the teacher could ^0^ wait. *'Wliy^ Charles/^ said he, 
impatiently; ^^you want one-fourth of eight, don^t 
you ?^^ ^^ Yes, sir/^ said Charles, promptly; and I 
thought best not to insist further at this time upon .a 
repetition of "yes, sir," and the class were allowed to 
proceed in their OAvn way. 

This is, indeed, an extreme case, and yet it is but a 
fair sample of that teacher^s method of stupefying 
mind. This habit of assisting the pupil to some ex- 
tent, is, however, a very common one, and as deleterious 
to mind as it is common. The teacher should at once 
abandon this practice, and require the scholar to do the 
talhing at recitation. I need hardly suggest that such 
a course of extraction at recitation, aside from the 
waste of time by both parties, and the waste of strength 
by the teacher, has a direct tendency to make the 
scholar miserably superficial. For why should he 
study, if he knows from constant experience that the 
teacher, by a leading question, will relieve him from 
all embarrassment ? It lias often been remarked, that 
^^ the teacher makes the school.^' Perhaps in no way 
can he more effectually make an inefficient school, 
than by this drmving-oiit lyrocess. 

I look upon the two processes just described, as very 
prominent and prevalent faults in our modern teach- 



110 THEORY AND PllACTICE OF TEACHIKC? 

Helping the pupil.— Dangerous Avhen excessive. 

ing ; and if by describing them thus fully, I shall 
induce any to set a guard upon their practice in this 
particular, I shall feel amply rewarded. 

SECTI0:N" III — THE MORE EXCELLENT WAY 

It is always a very difficult question for the teacher 
to settle, ^'^How far shall I help the pupil, and how far 
shall the pupil be required to help himself ?^^ The 
teaching of nature would seem to indicate that the 
pupil should be taught mainly to depend on his own 
resources. This, too, I think is the teaching of com- 
mon sense. Whatever is learned should be so thorough- 
ly learned, that the next and higher step may be 
comparatively easy. And the teacher should always 
inquire, when he is about to dismiss one subject, 
whether the class understand it so well that they can 
go on to the next. He may, indeed, sometimes give a 
word of suggestion during the preparation of a lesson, 
and, by a seasonable hint, save the scholar the needless 
loss of much time. But it is a very great evil if the 
pupils acquire the habit of running to the teacher as 
soon as a slight difficulty presents itself, to request him 
to remove it. Some teachers, when this happens^ will 
send the scholar to his seat with a reproof perhaps, 
while others, with a mistaken kindness, will answer the 
question or solve the problem themselves, as the short- 



HIGHT MODES OF TEACHIKG 111 

Tlie true medium. 

est way to get rid of it. Both these courses are^ iii 
general, wrong. The inquirer should never be frowned 
upon ; this may discourage him. He should not b^ 
relieved from labor, as this will diminish his self- 
reliance without enlightening him ; for whatever is 
done for a scholar without his having studied closely 
upon it himself, makes but a feeble impression upon 
him, and is soon forgotten. The true way is, neither 
to discourage inquiry nor answer the question. Con- 
verse with the scholar a little as to the principles 
involved in the question ; refer him to principles which 
he has before learned, or has now lost sight of; perhaps 
call his attention to some rule or explanation before 
given to the class ; go just so far as to enlighten him a 
little, and jput Mm on the scent, then leave him to 
achieve the victory himself. There is a great satisfac- 
tion in discovering a difficult thing for one^s self, — and 
the teacher does the scholar a lasting injury who takes 
this pleasure from him. The teacher should be simply 
suggestive, but should never take the glory of a victory 
from the scholar by doing his work for him, at least, 
not until he has given it a thorough trial himself. 

The skill of the teacher, then, will be best manifested, 
if he can contrive to awaken such a spirit in the pupil, 
that he shall be very unwilling to be assisted ; if he can 
kindly up such a zeal, that the pupil will prefer to try 



112 TllEOJiY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



"Not to-day, sir. "—"I've got it !' 



again and again before he will consent that the teacher 
shall interpose. I shall never forget a class of boys^, 
some fourteen or fifteen years of age, who in the study 
of algebra had imbibed this spirit. A difficult question 
had been before the class a day or two, when I sug- 
gested giving them some assistance. '^ Not to-day, sir" 
was the spontaneous exclamation of nearly every one. 
Nor shall I forget the expression that beamed from the 
countenance of one of them, when, elated with his 
success, he forgot the proprieties of the school and 
audibly exclaimed, "I've got it! I've got it !'' It was 
a great day for him ; he felt, as he never before had 
felt, his own might. Nor was it less gratifying to me 
to find that his fellows were still unwilling to know his 
method of solution. The next day a large number 
brought a solution of their own, each showing evidence 
of originality. A class tliat has once attained to a 
feeling like this, will go on to educate themselves, when 
they shall have left the school and the living teacher. 
As to the communication of knowledge, aside from 
that immediately connected w^ith school-studies, there 
is a more excellent way than that of pouring it in by 
the process already described. It is but just that I 
should give a specimen of the method of doing this. I 
shall now proceed to do so, under the head of 



EIGHT MODES OP TEACHING 113 



Other than book-studies.— Repulsiveness.— General exercise. 



SECTIOI^ IV — WAKING UP MIND. 

The teacher of any experience knows, that if he will 
excite a deep and profitable interest in his school, he 
must teach many things besides book-studies. In our 
common schools, there will always be a company of 
small children, who, not yet having learned to read 
understandingly, will have no means of interesting 
themselves, and must depend mainly upon the teacher 
for the interest they take in the school. This to them 
is perhaps the most critical period of their lives. What 
ever impression is now made npon them wall be endur- 
ing. If there they become disgusted with the dullness 
and confinement of school, and associate the idea of 
pain and repulsiveness with that of learning, who can 
describe the injury done to their minds ? If, on the 
other hand, the teacher is really skillful, and excites in 
them a spirit of inquiry, and leads them in suitable 
ways to observe, to think, and to feel that the school is 
a happy place even for children, it is one great point 
gained. 

I may suggest here, then, that it would be well to 
set apart a few minutes once a day tor a general exer- 
cise in the school, when it should be required of all to 
lay by their studies, assume an erect attitude, and give 
their undivided attention to whatever the teacher may 
bring before them. Such a course would have its 



114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 



A specimen.— A fixed time. 



physiological advantages. It would relieve the minds 
of all for a few minutes. The erect attitude is a health- 
ful one. it would also serve as a short respite from 
duty, and thus refresh the older scholars for study. I 
may further add, that, for the benefit of these small 
children, every general exercise should be conducted 
with reference to them, and such topics should be in- 
troduced as they can understand. 

It is the purpose of the following remarks to give a 
specimen of the manner of conducting such exercises, 
for a few days, with reference to waking np mind in the 
school and also in the district. 

Let us suppose that the teacher has promised that 
on the next day, at ten minutes past ten o^clock, he 
shall request the whole school to give their attention five 
minutes, wliile he shall bring something there to which 
he shall call the attention, especially of the little boys 
and girls under seven years of age. This very an- 
nouncement will excite an interest both in school and 
at home ; and when the children come in the morning, 
they will be more wakeful than usual till the fixed time 
arrives. It is very important that this time should be 
fixed, and that the utmost punctuality should be ob- 
served, both as to the beginning and ending of the 
exercise at the precise time. 

The teacher, it should be supposed, has not made 



HiaHt MODfis OF fjLicniNa n-' 



Preparation.— Ear of corn.— Teaclier's address to tlie children. 



sucli an announcement witliout considering what he 
can do when the time arrives. He should have a well- 
digested plan of operation, and one which he knows 
beforehand that he can successfully execute. 

Let us suppose that in preparing for this exercise he 
looks about him to find some object which he can make 
his text ; and that he finds upon his study-table an car 
of corn. He thinks carefully what he can do with it, 
and then with a smile of satisfaction he puts it in his 
pocket for the ^'general exercise". 

In the morning he goes through the accustomed 
duties of the first hour, perhaps more cheerfully than 
usual, because he finds there is more of animation and 
wakefulness in the school. At the precise time, he 
gives the signal agreed upon, and all the pupils drop 
their studies and sit erect. When there is perfect 
silence and strict attention by all, he takes froui his 
pocket the ear of corn, and in silence holds it up before 
the school. The children smile, for it is a familiar 
object ; and they probably did not suspect they were 
to he fed with corn. 

Teacher. — ''Now, children," addressing himself to 
the youngest, '' I am going to ask you only one question 
to-day about this ear of corn. If you can answer it I 
shall be very glad ; if the little boys and girls upon the 
front seat cannot give the answer, I will let those in 



110 THKORY AKi) PKACTICE Oi* TEACHING 

Their answers. 

the next seat try ; and so on till all have tried^ nnlcss 
our time should expire before the right answer is given. 
I shall not be surprised if none of you give the answer 
I am thinking of. As soon as I ask the question, those 
who are under seven years old, that think they can give 
an answer, may raise their hand. What is this ear 

OF CORN FOR V 

Several of the children raise their hands, and the 
teacher points to one after another in order, and they 
rise and give their answers. 

Mary. — It is to feed the geese with. 

John. — Yes, and the hens too, and the pigs. 

Sarah. — My father gives corn to the cows. 

By this time the hands of the youngest scholars are 
all down, for having been taken a little by surprise, their 
knowledge is exhausted. So the teacher says that those 
between seven and ten years of age may raise their 
hands. Several instantly appear. The teacher again 
indicates, by pointing, those who may give the answer. 

Charles. — My father gives corn to the horses when 
the oats are all gone. 

Daniel. — T'Fe give it to the oxen and cows, and we 
fat the hogs upon corn. 

Laura. — It is good to eat. They shell it from the 
cobs and send it to mill, and it is ground into meal. 
They make bread of the meal, and we eat it. 



RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING 117 

Closing at the time.— Hear uo more till to-morrow. 

Tliis last pupil has looked a little further into domes- 
tic economy than those who answered before her. But 
by, this time, perhaps before, the five minutes have been 
nearly expended, and yet several hands are np, and the 
faces of several are beaming with eagerness to tell their 
thoughts. Let the teacher then say, "'We will have no 
more answers to-day. You may think of this matter 
till to-morrow, and then I will let you try again. I am 
sorry to tell you that none of you have mentioned the 
use I was thinking of, though I confess I expected 
it every minute. I shall not be surprised if no one 
of you give this answer to-morrow. I shall now put 
the ear of corn in my desk, and no one of you must 
speak to me about it till to-morrow. You may now 
take your studies." 

The children now breathe more freely, while the 
older ones take their studies, and the next class is 
called. In order to success, it is absolutely necessary 
that the teacher should positively refuse to hold any 
conversation with the children on the subject till the 
next time for "general exercise". 

During the remainder of the forenoon the teacher 
will very likely observe some signs of thoughtfulness 
on the part of those little children who have been 
habitually dull before. And perhaps some child, eager 
to impart a new discovery, will seek an opportunity to 



118 THEOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

The children go home.— They observe.— They inquire. 

make it known during the forenoon. ^'Wait till to- 
morrow," should be the teacher's only reply. 

Now let lis follow these children as they are dis- 
missed while they bend their steps toward home. They 
cluster together in groups as they go down the hill, 
and they seem to be earnestly engaged in conversation. 

" I don't believe it has any other use," says John. 

"Oh, yes, it has," says Susan ; ''^our teacher would 
not say so if it had not. Besides, did you not see what 
a knowing look he had, when he drew up his brow and 
said he guessed we couldn't find it out ?" 

" Well, I mean to ask my mother," says little Mary ; 
'^I guess she can tell." 

By-and-by as they pass a field of corn, Samuel sees 
a squirrel running across the street, with both his 
cheeks distended with '' j^lunder". 

At home, too, the ear of corn is made the subject of 
conversation. ^' What is an ear of corn for, mother ?" 
says little Mary, as soon as they have taken a seat at 
the dinner-table. 

Mother. — An ear of corn, child ? why, don't you 
know ? It is to feed the fowls, and tlie pigs, and the 
cattle ; and we make bread of it too 

Mary. — Yes, we told all that, but the teaclier says 
that is not all. 

Mother.— T\\Q teacher 9 



lilGIlT MODES OF TEACHING 119 



Their family become interested. 



Mary.— Yes, ma'am, the teacher had an ear of corn 
at school, and he asked us what it was for ; and after 
we had told him every thing we conld think of, he said 
there was another thing still. Now, I want to find out, 
so that / can tell him. 

The consequence of this would be that the family, 
father, mother, and older brothers and sisters, would 
resolve themselves into a committee of the whole on 
the ear of corn. The same, or something like this, 
would be true in other families in the district ; and 
by the next morning, several children would have some- 
thing further to communicate on the subject. The hour 
would this day be awaited with great interest, and the 
first signal would produce perfect silence. 

The teacher now takes the ear of corn from the desk 
and displays it before the school ; and quite a number 
of hands are instantly raised as if eager to be the first 
to tell what other use they have discovered for it. 

The teacher now says pleasantly, ^^The use I am 
thinking of, you have all observed, I have no doubt ; it 
is a very important use indeed ; but as it is a little out 
of the common course, I shall not be surprised if you 
cannot give it. However, you may try.'' 

'at is good to boil!"* says little Susan, almost 
springing from the floor as she speaks. 

» Tlie cliildren themselves will De sure to iind some new answers to such 
questions as the above. In giving in substance this lectm-e to a gathering 
pi teachers in the Autumn of 1845, in one of the busy villages of New York, 



120 THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

Second day.— Anecdote.— Older pupils interested. 

'''And it is for squirrels to eat/' says little Samuel. 
^''I saw one carry away a whole mouthful yesterday 
from the corn-field. '^ 

Others still mention other uses, which they have 
observed. They mention other animals which feed 
upon it, or other modes of cooking it. The older 
pupils begin to be interested, and they add to the list 
of uses named. Perhaps, however, none will name 
the one the teacher has in his own mind ; he should 
cordially welconio the answer if perchance it is given ; 
if none should give it, he may do as he thinks best 
about giving it himself on this occasion. Perhaps, if 
there is time he may do so, — after the following manner. 

^'I have told you that the answer I was seeking was a 
very simple one ; it is something you have all observed, 

-wliere also the pupils of one of the district schools were present hy invita- 
tion, I had described a process similar to that Avhich has been dwelt upon 
above. I had given the supposed answers for the first day, and had de- 
scribed the children as pressing- the question at home. When I had pro- 
ceeded as far as to ta]i:e up the ear of corn the second day, and had spoken 
of the possibility that the true answer to the question might not be given, 
I tm-ned almost instinctively to the class r f children at my right, saying, 
'' Note what is the ear of corn for ? " A little boy, some six years of age, 
who had swallowed every word, and whose face glowed as If there was not 
room enough for his soul v/ithin him, bounded upon his feet, and forgetting 
the publicity of the place and the gravity of the chamnan of the meeting, 
clapping- his hands forcibly together, " IVs to pop / " he exclaimed em- 
phatically, very much to the amusement of the audience. His mind had 
been loalcecl ux>. 



KIGHT MODES OF TExVCHING 121 

Tiie secret revealed.— A new question.— Anotiier. 

and you may be a little disappointed when I tell you. 
The use I have been thinking of for the ear of corn is 
this : — // is to jjicmf. It is for seed, to jiropagate that 
species of 23lant called corn." Here the children may 
look disappointed, as much as to say, '' \Ve knew that 
before/^ 

The teacher continues : "'And this is a very import- 
ant use for the corn ; for if for one year none should be 
planted, and all the ears that grew the year before should 
be consumed, we should have no more corn. This, then, 
was the great primary design of the corn ; the other 
uses you have named were merely secondary. But 1 
mean to make something more of my ear of corn. My 
next question is : — Do other plants have seeds ?"* 

Here is a new field of inquiry. Many hands are 
instantly raised ; but as the five minutes by this time 
have passed, leave them to answer at the next time. 

'^ Rave other jilf^^^'i^ts seeds f the children begin to 
inquire in their own minds, and each begins to think 
over a list of such plants as he is familiar with. When 
they are dismissed, they look on the way home at the 
plants by the roadside, and when they reach home, they 
run to the garden. At the table they inquire of their 
parents, or their brothers and sisters. 

At the next exercise, they will have more than they 

* riant is liore used in the popular sense. 



122 THEORY AlTD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Impart instruction.— The recipient has gained capacity. 

can tell in five minutes as the results of their own ob- 
servation and research. When enough has been said 
by the children as to the plants which have seeds, the 
next question may be : — Do all plants have seeds ? 
This question will lead to much inquiry at home 
wherever botany is not well understood. There are 
many who are not aw^are that all plants have seeds. 
Very likely the ferns (common brakes) wall be noticed 
by the children themselves. They may also name 
several other i:)lants which do not exhibit their apparatus 
for seed-bearing very conspicuously. This will prepare 
the way for the teacher to impart a little information. 
Nor is there any harm in his doing so, whenever he is 
satisfied that the mind has been suitably exercised. 
The mind is no longer a '*^ passive recipient^' ; and he 
may be sure that by inquiry it has increased its capacity 
to contam, and any fact which now answers inquiry, 
will be most carefully stored up. 

The next question :nay be : — Do trees have seeds ? 
As the children next go out, their eyes are directed to 
the trees above them. The fruit-trees, the walnut, the 
oak, and perhaps the pine, will be selected as those 
which have seeds. They will, however, mention quite 
a number which do not, or which, they think, do not 
have seeds. Among these may be the elm, the birch, 
and the Lombardy poplar. After hearing their opin- 



RIGHT 3I0DES OF TEACHIIS'G 123 

Tiie elm.— A promise. 

ions, and the results of their observations, take one of 
their exceptions as the subject of the next question : — 
Docs the Elm have seeds?* This will narrow their 
inquiries down to a specific case, and every elm in the 
district will be inquired of as to its testimony on this 
point. 

If the children can any of them collect and give the 
truth in the matter, so much the better ; but if they, 
after inquiring of their parents and their grandparents, 
as I have known a whole school to do, come back insist- 
ing that the elm has no seeds ; after hearing their reasons 
for their belief, and perhaps the opinions of their parents, 
you may promise to tell them something about it at the 
next exercise. This will again awaken expectation, not 
only among the children, but among the parents. All 
will wish to know what you have to bring out. 

Great care should be taken not to throw any dispar- 
agement upon the opinions of parents. Perhaps, after 
giving the signal for attention, you may proceed as 
follows : — 

''Has the elm-tree any seeds? Perhaps, children, 
you may recollect after the co'ld winter has passed 
away, that, along in the latter part of March, or the first 

* It is a very common opinion in tlie couutry tkat tlie elm lias no seeds. 
I once knew a man wlio grew gray under tlie shade of a large elm, and 
vrtio Insisted that it never hore any seeds. 



124 TlIKOilY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A caution.— Example of teaching. 

of April, we sometimes have a warm, sunny da}^ The 
birds, perhaps, appear and begin to sing a littk^, and as 
you look up to the elm, you notice that its buds seem 
to SAvell, and you think it is going to put out its leaves. 
Everybody says we are going to have an early spring. 
But after this the cold frosty nights and windy days 
come on again, and then you think the leaves cannot 
come out so early. Now, if you observe carefully, the 
leaves do not come out till about the 20th of May, or 
perhaps the first of June. Did you ever see anything 
like what I have described ? " 

^'^Yes, sir, we remember that.'" 

*^ Well, the next time you see the buds begin to open, 
just break off a twig of a good large tree, and you will 
find they are not the leaf-huds. But if you will watch 
them carefully for two or three weeks, you will find 
that each bud will put out some beautiful little flowers, 
brightly colored, and slightly fragrant. If you will still 
continue to watch them, you will find, as the flowers 
fall off, that seed vessels are formed, shaped very much 
like, tl e j^arsnip seed. These will grow larger and 
larger every day, and by-and-by they will turn brown 
and look as if they were ripe. Just al)out this time 
the leaves will come out ; and soon after these seeds, 
during some windy day or night, will all fall off. The 
ground will be covered with thousands of them. Per- 
haps you have seen this.'' 



RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING V^D 



Elm-dust.— A new question.— Kesults.—Anotlier.— Results. 

" Yes, sir/'" says John, ^^Grandpa calls that ehn-dust.'' 

^^ Perhaps next year you can watch this and ask 
vonr j^a^rents to examine it with yon. But the five 
minutes are ended." 

Now, information thus communicated will never he 
forgotten. The mind, having been put upon the 
stretch, is no longer 2i 2)assive recipient. 

The next question : — How are seeds disseminated ? 
— (of course explaining the term 'Ulisseminated".) 

This will bring in a fund of information from the 
pupils. They will mention that the thistle seed flies, 
and so does the seed of the milkweed ; that the burs of 
the burdock, and some other seeds are provided with 
hooks, by which they attach themselves to the hair of 
animals or the clothing of men, and ride away to their 
resting-place, which may be a hundred miles off. Some 
fall into the water and sail away to another shore. 
Some, like the seed of the Touch-me-not, are thrown at a 
distance by the bursting of the elastic pericarp ; others, 
as nuts and acorns, are carried by squirrels and buried 
beneath the leaves. These facts would mostly be 
noticed by children, when once put upon observation. 

Kext question : — Are jjlanis propagated in any other 
ID ay than hy seeds 9 

This question would call their attention to the various 
means of natural and artificial propagation — by layers, 



126 THEORY AKJ) PRACTICE OF TEACHlNdf 



Still another.— Eemai-ks. 



by offsets, by suckers, by grafting, by inoculation oi 
budding, etc., etc. 

Again : — Have any ijlants more ways tlian one oj 
natural lyropagation f Some have one way only, — by 
seeds, as the annual plants ; some have two, — by seeds, 
and by roots, as the potato ; some have three,— as the 
tiger lily, by side-balbs from the roots, by stalk-hulbs, 
and by the seeds. This can be extended indefinitely. 

SECTION V — REMARKS 

Let it be remembered that the above has been given 
%imply as a sjjecime^i of what could easily be done by 
,in ingenious teacher, with as common a thing as an ear 
of corn for the text. Any other thing would answer as 
well. A chijD, a tooth or a bone of an animal, a piece 
of iron, a feather, or any other object, could be made 
the text for adroitly bringing in the uses of wood, the 
food and haUts of animals, the use a7id comparative 
value of metals, the covering of lirds, their migration, 
the covering of animals, etc., etc. Let the teacher but 
think what department he will dwell upon, and then he 
can easily select his text ; and if he has any tact, he 
can keep the children constantly upon inquiry and 
observation. 

The advantages of the above course over simply 
lecturing to them on certain subjects^ that is, over the 



lUGHT i^iODES OF TEACHING 12*^ 

Effects upon thp children.— Advantages of observation. 

pouring-in ^^^'ocess, are many and great. Some of the 
most obvious I will briefly state. 

1. II immediately 2^^^^^ i^^^ minds of the cliildren into 
a state of vigorous activity. They feel that they are no 
\oi\gQV passive recipients. They are incited to discover 
and ascertain for themselves. They are, therefore, 
profitably employed both in and out of school, and as a 
consequence are more easily governed. A habit of 
observation is cultivated in them ; and what an advan- 
tage is this for- a child ! It is almost unnecessary to 
remark that many people go through the world without 
seeing half the objects which are brought within their 
reach. It would be the same to them if their eyes 
were half the time closed. If they travel through a 
country presenting the most beautiful scenery or the 
most interesting geological features, they see nothing. 
They grow up among all the wonders of God's works, 
amid all the displays of his wisdom, of his design, to 
no purpose. They study none of the plans of nature ; 
and by all the millions of arrangements which God has 
made, to delight the eye, to gratify the taste, to excite 
the emotions of pleasure instead of pain, they are 
neither the happier nor the wiser. What a blessing, 
then, it is to a child, to put his mind upon inquiry ; to 
open his eyes to observe what his Creator intended his 
intelligent creatures should behold, of his goodness, his 



138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINO 

Parents tieneflted.— Take an interest in tlie scliool. 

wisdom, his power. And how far superior is he who 
teaclies a child to see for himself and to think for him- 
self, to him who sees and thinks /or the child, and thus 
practically invites the pupil to close his own eyes and 
grope in darkness through the instructive journey of 
life. 

2. It is of great service to tlie parents in the district 
to have this wahi7ig-up jyrocess in operation. Our chil- 
dren are sometimes our best teachers. Parents are apt 
to grow rusty in their acquirements, and it is no doubt 
one of the designs of providence that the inquisitiveness 
of childhood should preserve them from sinking into 
mental inactivity. Who can hear the inquiries of liis 
own child after knowledge, without a desire to supply 
his wants ? Kow it is right for the teacher to use this 
instrumentality to tvake up mind in his district. Parents, 
by the course I have recommended, very soon become 
interested in these daily questions of the teacher ; and 
they are often as eager to know what is the next ques- 
tion as the children are to report it. This course, then, 
will supply profitable topics of conversation at the fire- 
side, and very likely will encourage also the pursuit of 
useful reading. It will, moreover, soon awaken a deeper 
interest in the school on the part of the parents. They 
will begin to inquire of one another as to this new 
measure ; and when they find by conference that the 



RiaHT MODES OP TEACHING 129 

Teacher is improved. 

feeling in this matter is becoming general, they will 
desire to visit the school to witness this as well as the 
other operations of the teacher. This will secure 
parental cooperation, and thus in every way the in- 
fluence of the school will be heightened. It is no small 
thing for a teacher to enlist the interest of his patrons 
in the success of his school ; and this is the most 
happily done, when it is achieved throngli the medium 
of the pupils themselves. 

3. It wahes up the teacher's oivn mind. This is by 
no means the least important point to be gained. The 
teacher, by the very nature of his employment, by daily 
confinement in an unhealthy atmosphere, by teaching 
over and over again that with Avhich he is quite familiar, 
by boarding with people wlio are inclined to be social, 
and by the fatigue and languor with which he finds 
himself oppressed every night, is strongly tempted to 
neglect his own improvement. There are but few who 
rise above this accumulation of impediments and go 
on in spite of them to eminence in the profession. A 
large proportion of all who teach, rely upon the attain- 
ments with which they commence ; and in the course 
of two or three years, finding themselves behind the 
age, they abandon the employment. This is very 
natural. Any man wlio treads in a beaten track, like a 
horse in a mill, must become vreary, however valuable 



IBO THEORY AND PEACTICE OF TEACHIK(? 

Tlie teacher's temptations.— Books not to toe neglected. 

the product may be which he grinds out. It is essential 
that he should keep his own interest awake by some 
exercise of his ingenuity, and that he should compel 
himself to be industrious by undertaking that which 
will absolutely demand study. The above process will 
do this ; and while he may have the exquisite pleasure 
of seeing the growth of his pupils^ minds, he may also 
have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth of 
his own. 

I must here add, that it has not been my intention, 
in what I have said, to inculcate the idea that the study 
of books should in the least degree be abated to make 
room for this process of leaking uj) mind. The various 
branches are to be pursued, and as diligently pursued, as 
ever before. The time to be set apart for this exercise 
should be short, — never probably to exceed five minutes. 
It is to come in when the scholars need rest for a mo- 
ment, and when, if not employed about this, they 
would probably be doing nothing, or, perhaps, worse 
than nothing. It should be managed with care and 
should never be made a hohby by teachers, as if it were 
of more importance than any thing else. One secret 
of success in this — as, indeed, in everything — is, that it 
should not be continued too long at once. The pupils 
should be left 'longing — not loathing'\ 



inant Modes of teachim 131 



Given only as a specimen. 



Lot me again remind the reader that I have given the 
ahove as a sj^ecimen. The choice of tlie ear of corn 
was merely accidental ; it hapj^ened to lie on my table 
when I wanted a text. The teacher should look upon 
this simply as a specimen, and then choose his own 
subjects. The main point aimed at is this : — ]N"ever ask 
leading questions which your scholars can hardly fail 
to answer ; and never lecture to your pnj^ils till you have 
somehow first kindled in them a living desire to know ; 
that is, avoid alike the '^'drawing-out'" and the ^^pour- 
ing-in ^' process. Rather let it be your object to excite 
inquiry by a question they cannot answer without 
thought and observation, — and such a question as they 
would deem it disgraceful not to be able to answer. 
This adroitly done is " loahing ^ip mind '\ 



CHAPTER A^II 

CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 

IK considering a teacher's qualifications^ the powei 
of exciting an interest in the recitations of his school 
may not be overlooked. No man can he successful for 
any length of time without this. This comprises whj^t 
is nsually implied by aptness to teach. All men 
have not this faculty by nature in an equal degree. 
Some may talk for an hour upon an interesting topic in 
the presence of children without commanding their 
attention ; while there are others who can take even a 
common-place subject and secure for any length of 
time an all-absorbing interest in every word. This 
difierence is seen in every grade of public speakers, 
and in all descriptions of writers ; but perhaps more 
strikingly than anywhere else it is observable among 
teachers. Enter one school, and you may notice that 
the scholars are dull and listless ; indifference sits un- 
disturbed npon their brows ; or perhaps they are driven 
by the activity of their own natures to some expedient 
to interest themselves, while the teacher is with very 
commendable spirit, laboriously — perhaps learnedly — 
explaining some principle or fact designed for their 



CONDUCTING EECITATIONS 133 

A contrast.— Not always a natural gift. 

edification. The secret is, lie has not yet learned to 
awaken their attention ; he fails to excite their interest. 

Pass to another school. A breathless silence per- 
vades the room ; the countenances of the children, 
upturned towards the teacher, beam with delight. As 
he kindles into earnestness and eloquence, they kindle 
into responsive enthusiasm. "Whenever his eye meets 
theirs, he sees — he feels the glow radiated by the fire 
lie is lighting in their souls, and his own gathers new 
warmth and enthusiasm in return. Such a man is apt 
fo teach ; and you could scarcely break the spell by 
which he holds his class, ^^ though you should give 
them for playthings, shining fragments broken from off 
the sun/^ 

lie who possesses this gift naturally, has very great 
advantage as a teacher to begin with. The ability to 
tell well what he knows, is of more consequence to the 
teacher, than the greatest attainments without the 
power to communicate them. Combine high attain- 
ments with the ability to tell, and you have the 
accomplished teacher. 

But this power to communicate is not necessarily a 
natural gift ; it comes not always by intuition. It can 
be acquired. It is founded in philosophy ; and he who 
can understand anything of the workings of his own 
mind, who can revert to the mental processes he went 



134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

How acquired.— Natural order. 

through in order to comprehend a, principle, who can 
go back to that state of mind ho was in before he com- 
prehended it, and then by one step more can put him- 
self in the place of the child he is teaching, realizing 
exactly his j^erplexities and feeling his precise wants, 
can become the ajit teaclier. Those who fail in this 
are usually those who have forgotten the steps they 
took to acquire their own knowledge, or perhaps who 
never noticed what steps they did take. 

To acquire this rare qualification should be the con- 
stant study of the teacher. To this end he should recall, 
as far as possible, the operations of his own mind in 
childhood. By studying his own mind, he learns, often 
most effectually, what he needs to know of others. 
Whenever he is preparing to teach any principle or fact 
to others, let him ask himself questions like the follow- 
ing : — What was the dark point in this, when I studied 
it ? Where did my mind labor most ? What point did 
my teacher fail to explain ? Such questions will fre- 
quently suggest the very difficulty which perplexes 
every mind in the same process. Again, the following 
inquiries may be very useful : — In studying this, what 
was the first point which appeared clear to me ? After 
this, what was the second step, and liotv did that follow 
the first ? The next in order ? And the next ? Was 
this the natural order ? If not, what is the natural 



CONDUCTING KECITATIONS 135 

Science of teaching.— Thorough knowledge. 

order ? The right answers to these questions will suggest 
the course to be pursued in the instruction of a class. 

The teacher can scarcely ask a more important 
question than this : — miat is the natural order of pre- 
senting a given suhjed 9 The ability to determine this, 
is what constitutes in a great degree the science of 
teaching. This inquiry should occupy much thought 
because a mistake here is disastrous, and ever will be, 
as long as divine wisdom is superior to human. He 
who can ascertain the order of nature^ will be most 
sure of exciting an interest in the subject he is endeav- 
oring to teach. 

Some further suggestions as to conducting school 
recitations are contained in the following paragraphs. 

1. The teacher should thoroughly understand what 
he attempts to teach. It is destructive of all life in the 
exercise, if the teacher is constantly chained down to 
the text-book. I have no objection, indeed, that he 
should take his text-book with him to the class, and 
that he should occasionally refer to it to refresh his 
own memory, or to settle a doubt. But who does not 
know that a teacher who is perfectly familiar with 
what is to be taught, has ten times the vivacity of one 
who is obliged to follow the very letter of the book ? 
His own enthusiasm glows in his countenance, sparkles 
in his eye, and leaps from his tongue. He watches the 



136 THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHIisG 

Its advantages to the teaclier.— Printed questions. 

halting of the 23U23il, perceives his difficulty, devises his 
expedient for illustrating the dark point in some 
new way, and, at the proper moment, renders just the 
amount of assistance which the pupil needs. Not 
confined to the text, he has the use of his eyes j and 
when *he speaks or explains, he can accompany his 
remark with a quickening look of intelligence. In this 
way his class is enlivened. They respect him for his 
ready attainment, and they are fired with a desire to be 
his equal. 

How different is it with a teacher who knows nothing 
of the subject but what is contained in the text before 
him, and who knows that only as he reads it during 
the intervals occasioned by the hesitations of the class. 
Every question he proposes is printed at the bottom 
of the page ; and as soon as lie reads the question, 
without a glance at the pupil, his eye sets out on a 
chase after the answer m the text. If the scholar 
has not already been stupified by such teaching, and 
happens to give an intelligent answer, yet not in the 
precise language of the book, he is set right by the 
teacher^s reading the very words, — just so much de- 
tached from the sentence, as he fancies was intended 
to answer that one question ! In this way he dis- 
courages thought in liis pupils, and sets a bounty 
on mechanical study. In this way, too, he congeals 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 137 

Special preparation.— Tlie tables turned. 

whatever of interest they bring with them to the reci- 
tation^ and they sink into indifference, — or, following 
the instincts of their nature, they seek occupation 
in play or mischief, even under the sound of his voice ! 
2. Tlie teacher should speeially ])re])are himself for 
each lesson he assigns. This is naturally suggested by 
what has just been said. The teacher's memory needs 
to be refreshed. We all know how difficult it would 
be to recite a lesson, in geometry for instance, weeks 
after studying it. It is so in other things, ^ow the 
teacher should be so familiar with the lesson which he 
proposes to hear recited, tliat ho could recite it himself 
as 2:)crfectly as he would desire his scholars to do it. 
This is seldom the case. I have heard a teacher, with 
the text-book in his hands, complain of the dullness or 
inaccuracy of his classes, when, if the tables had been 
turned, and the pupils allowed to ask the questions, 
the teacher would scarcely have recited as well. And 
I may add, this is no very uncommon thiiuj I If any 
one is startled at this assertion, let him request a 
friend, in whom he can confide, to ask him the ques- 
tions of a particular lesson in geography, or histor}^, or 
grammar. The teacher should daily study his class 
lessons. This will enable him the better to assign his 
lessons judiciously. In this daily study, he should 
master the text-hooh upon the subject ; and more than 



138 THEOKY Aiq^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Common-place book.— Its use. 

this, he should consider what collateral matter he can 
bring in to illustrate the lesson. He should draw upon 
the resources of his own mind, — upon the treasures of 
his common-ijlace looh,^ — upon the contents of some 
encyclopaedia, — upon any source, from whence he can 
obtain a supply of knowledge for his purpose. This 
will improve his own mind, and he will be encouraged, 
as from time to time he teaches the same branch, to 
find that he is able to do better than ever before, and 
that, instead of becoming weary with repetition, he is 
more and more enthusiastic in the subject. 

Going thus to his class — so full of the subject, that 

* It Is an excellent plan lor every teacher to keep a common-place book 
of considerable size, different portions of it being- set apart for the different 
subjects upon wbicli lie is to give instruction. On the first twenty pages, 
"Geography" may be the 7iertf7,— the next twenty pages may be set apart 
lor " History,"— twenty more may be assigned to ''Reading,"— and alike 
number to "Arithmetic," "Grammar," "Spelling," "Wanting," etc., re- 
serving quite a space for "Miscellaneous Matter." This would make a 
large book, but when it is remembered that it is to be used lor several 
years, it is well to have it large enough to contain a large amount of mat- 
ter. Now, whenever the teacher hears a lectui-e on a peculiar method of 
teaching either cf these branches, let him note the prominent parts of it 
under the proper head, and especially the iUustratlons. When he reads or 
hears an anecdote illustrating Geography, Histoiy, or Grammar, let it be 
copied under the proper head. If it illustrates Geography, let the name of 
the x)lace stand at its head. When he visits a school, and listens to a new 
explanation or a new process, let him note it under its head. In this way 
he may collect a thousand valuable things to be used with Judgment in 
his school. 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 139 



Use of the eye.— Correct language.—" Sums." 



were the text-book annihilated, he could make another 
and better one — he will have no difficulty to secure 
attention. As he speaks, his eye accompanies his word, 
and as his pupils answer, he sees the expression of their 
countenances ; and what a world of meaning there is 
in this expression ! It betrays, better than words can 
do, the clearness or obscurity of the mind's perception, 
when a truth is presented. How different the beaming 
of the eye when the soul apprehends, from that almost 
idiotic stare at vacuity when words are used without 
import. And hoAV necessary it is that the teacher 
should be free to observe the inward workings of the 
soul as indicated upon the countenance. 

3. The teacher should he aUe to lose our language 
■flue^itly and correctly. In this many are deficient. 
They hesitate and stammer, and after all, express their 
ideas in vague terms, and perhaps by the use of inac- 
curate or inelegant language. A teacher in no way 
gives so effectual instruction in grammar as by his own 
use of our language ; and there can be no sight more 
mortifying than that of a teacher laboring to fix in the 
minds of his class some rule of syntax, when his own 
language at the very moment shows an entire disregard 
of the rule. It is very common to hear teachers talk 
of "sums" to their classes in arithmetic, and even to 
ask them to do *'sums" in subtration or division ! Th^ 



140 THEOliY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHII^^G 

" Question. "—Anecdote.— Animation. 

term "question " is often as improperly applied, when 
no question is asked. The teacher should be accurate 
in the use of terms. ^' Question ^^ is sometimes the 
proper word; sometimes '^'^ problem^', and sometimes 
^"^ exercise^', or '^ example"^ may with more propriety 
be used; but " sum'^ means the amount of several 
numbers when added, and it should not be applied as 
the name of an exercise. Some teachers use the terms 
ratio 2a\di proportion"^ interchaugeably, as if they were 
synonyms. Such inaccuracies in the teacher will be 
sure to be reproduced in the school, and it is a great 
evil for the scholar to acquire a careless habit in the 
use of terms. 

4. He should have proper animation himself. Horace 
Mann describes some of the Scotch teachei's as working 
themselves up into a feverish excitement in the presence 
of their classes, and the classes in turn as literally 
bounding from the floor when they answer their hasty 
questions. ISTow, while I think these Scotch teachers 
go quite too far, I do think that many of our own 
teachers come short of a proper standard of animation. 

* We are reminded l»y tliis of tlie college student who was examined 
rattier closely toy his tutor. " What is ratio v "' inquired the tutoi-. 
"Ratio ? " said the young man, "ratio Is pi'oportion." "Well, what is pro- 
portion?" "Proportion? proportion is .ratio." "Well, then," said the 
tutor, looking perplexed, " what are tooth together ? " " Excuse me," said 
the pupil, '•'• I cantlejiiw Out onv at a timc.'^^ 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 141 

Cliildren imitative.— Attitude.— The attention of the class. 

A teacher should be ready, without being rapid ; ani- 
mated, without being boisterous. Children are imitative 
beings ; and it is astonishing to observe how very soon 
they catch the manners of the teacher. If he is heavy 
and plodding in his movements, they will very soon be 
dull and drowsy in theirs ; then, if he speaks in a 
sprightly tone, and moves about with an elastic step, 
they almost realize a resurrection from the dead. If he 
appears absent-minded, taking but little interest in the 
lesson which is recited, they will be as inattentive, at 
least, as he ; while, if all his looks and actions indicate 
that the subject is of some importance, he will gain 
their attention. Nor can I refrain in this place from 
suggesting to the teacher the importance of regarding 
his manners, while engaged in conducting a recitation. 
His attitude should not be one of indolence or coarse- 
ness, — and when he moves from his seat, and appears 
at the blackboard to illustrate any point, it should be 
done gracefully, and with a constant regard to the fact, 
that every look and every motion teaches. 

5. He should never proceed without the attention of 
the class. A loss of interest is sure to follow a want of 
attention. Besides, a habit of inattention, while it is 
very common, is also a great calamity to the person 
who falls into it during life. Many a sermon is lost 
upon a portion of the audience in our churches every 



142 THEOKY AKi) PRACTICE OF TEACHIN^G 

A routine.— "Books but helps."— Utility. 

Sabbath from this cause. When the attention is 
aroused, the impression made is enduring ; and one 
idea then communicated is worth a hundred at any 
other time. 

6. Avoid a formal routine in teaching. Children 
are very apt to imbibe the notion that they study in 
order to recite. They have but little idea of any pur- 
pose of acquirement beyond recitation ; hence they 
study their text book as mere words. The teacher 
should, as soon as possible, lead them to study the sub- 
ject, using the book simply as an instrument. ^^ Books 
are but helps ^' — should become their motto. In order 
to bring this about, the instructor would do well occa- 
sionally to leave entirely the order of the book, and 
question them on the toinc they have studied. If they 
are pursuing arithmetic, for instance, and they have 
carefully prepared a definite number of problems, it 
might be well to test their ability by giving them at the 
recitation others of the teachers' own preparing, in- 
volving an application of what they have learned to the 
business of life. This will lead them to study intelli- 
gently. Besides, as soon as they begin to see how their 
knowledge is to be \iseful to them, they liave a new 
motive to exertion. They should be so taught as to 
discover that grammar will improve their understanding 
and use of language ; that writing will prepare them 



COKDUCTIKG RECITATIONS 143 

Intelligible language.— An example quoted. 

for business, and by enabling them to communicate 
with their friends, will add to their enjoyment ; and so 
of readino- and the other branches. 

7. Be careful to use language wliicli is intelligible 
to children, ivhenever an exjolanation is give7i. The 
object of an explanation is to elucidate, to make clearer. 
How is this object accomplished when the explanation 
is less intelligible than the thing explained ? Suppose 
a child should ask her teacher to explain the cause of 
cold in winter and heat in summer ; in other words, the 
cause of the change of seasons. '^ Oh, yes,^' says he, 
pleasantly. '' The annual revolution of the earth round 
the sun in connection with the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
occasions the succession of the four seasons. ^^* The child 
listens to these '^^ words of learned length" and is aston- 
ished at the learning of her teacher, but she has no clearer 
idea than before of the point she inquired about. 

Mr. S. R. Hall, in his lectures, gives the following 
forcible illustration of the same point. '^ Will you 
please to tell me why I carry one for every ten ? " said 
little Laura to her instructor. ^^Yes, my dear," said 
he, kindly. '^ It is because numbers increase from right 
to left in a decimal ratio." Laura sat and repeated it 
to herself two or three times, and then looked very sad. 
The master, as soon as he had answered, pursued his 

•Worcester's Oeograpliy, 



144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIXG 

Honest confession,— not mystification. 

other business and did not notice lier. But she was 
disappointed. She understood him no better than if he 
had used Avords of another language. '' Decimal '' and 
''^ ratio'" were words that might have fallen on her ear 
before^ but if so^ she understood them none the better for 
it. She looked in the dictionary and was disappointed 
again^ and after some time, put away her arithmetic. 
When asked by her teacher why she did so, she replied, 
''1 don't like to study it ; I can't understand it." 

" Now the injury to little Laura was very great. She 
had commenced the study with interest ; she had learned 
to answer a great many questions in arithmetic and had 
been j^leased. She was now using a slate and writing 
her figures on it, and had found the direction to carry 
one for every ten. This she might have been made to 
understand. The master loved his scholars and wished to 
benefit them, hut forgot that terms i)erfectly iilain to him 
tvould le uninielligihle to the child. From that moment 
Laura disliked arithmetic, and every elf ort that could be 
used with her could not efface the impression that it 
was a hard study, and she could not understand it.'' 

While upon this subject, I might urge that teachers 
should not resort to evasion when they are not alle to 
explain. It is a much more honorable, and far more 
satisfactory course, for the teacher frankly to confess 
his inability to explain, than to indulge in some ridic- 



CONDUCTING RECITATIONS 145 

Example.— More requires more ! 

iilous mysticism to keep up the show of knowledge. I 
may never forget the passage I first made through the 
Rule of Three, and the manner in which my manifold 
perplexities respecting ''^ direct and inverse " proportion 
were solved. ''Sir/'^ said I^ after puzzling a long time 
over ^ more requiring more and less requiring less ' — 
'^will you tell me Avhy I sometimes multiply the second 
and third terms together and divide hy the first — and at 
other times multiply the first and second and divide by 
the third ? " " Why, because more requires more some- 
times, and sometimes it requires less — to be sure. 
Haven^t you read the rule, my boy ?^' '' Yes, sir, I can 
repeat the rule, but I don't understand \i." ^^Why it 
is because ' more requires more and less requires less ' ! " 
'' But why, sir, do I multiply as the rule says V " Why, 
because ^more requires more and less requires less' — 
see, the rule says so." ''I know the rule says so, but 
I wished to understand tvhy." — ^'^Why? why?" look- 
ing at me as if idiocy itself trembled before him — 
'Mvhy ?— why because the rtde says so ; don't you see 
it 9 — l^^il/ore requires more and less requires less I " — 
and in the midst of this inexplicable combination of 
more and less, I shrunk away to my seat blindly to 
follow the rule because it said so. Such teaching as 
this is enough to stultify the most inquiring mind ; and 
it is to secure the Messing of relief from such infiuence to 



146 THEORY AI^B PRACTICE OE TEACHIK(? 

Accurate and prompt recitation.— It saves time. 

the children of any ioarticular district, that we come to 
consider an occasional change of tesLchers s.7nitigated evil. 

8. Eeqaire jJrompt and accurate recitation. I know 
of nothing that will abate the interest of a class sooner 
than dull and dragging recitations. The temptation in 
such cases is very strong for the teacher to help the 
class by the '^^ drawing-out process ^^ before described. 
This, however, only makes the matter worse. The 
dull recitation calls for the teacher^s aid. ; and his aid 
reproduces the dull recitation. The only way is to stop 
at once, and refuse to proceed till the recitation can go 
alone. It is just as easy to have good lessons as poor ; 
and the teacher should have the energy to insist upon 
them. Mark the countenances of a class as they go to 
their seats after a good recitation. They feel that they 
have done something, and they look as if they valued 
the teacher^s approbation and their own so highly, that 
they will learn the next lesson still better. 

It is moreover a great saving of time, to have the 
lessons ^n'omptly recited. This saving will afford the 
opportunity to introduce those additional illustrations I 
have before suggested, in order to excite a still deeper 
interest. It may sometimes, though not always, be well 
to make a prompt and perfect recitation the condiiion 
of introducing the additional matter. 

9. Rely not too much upon simultaneous recitation. 



CONDUCTIKa KECrrAtiO.NS 147 

simultaneous recitation.— Sometimes allowable. 

Tills has become quite too fashionable of bite. It had its 
origin in the Large schools established some years since, 
known as Lancasterian schools, and perhaps was well 
enough adapted to schools kept upon that plan in large 
cities. But when this mode of reciting is adopted in our 
district and country schools, where the circumstances of 
large numbers and extreme backwardness are wanting, 
it is entirely uncalled for, and like other city fashions 
transferred to the country, is really out of i^lace. 

Seriously, I look upon this as one of the prominent 
faults in many of our schools. It destroys all indepen- 
dence in the pupil by taking away his individuality. 
He moves with the phalanx. Learning to rely on others, 
he becomes superficial in his lessons. He is tempted 
to indolence by a knowledge that his deficiencies will 
not stand out by themselves ; and he comforts himself 
after a miserable recitation with the consoling reflection 
that he has been able to conceal his want of thorough- 
ness from his teacher. 

It may sometimes be useful. A few questions thus 
answered may serve to give animation to a class when 
their interest begins to flag ; but that which may serve 
as a stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. 
As an example of its usefulness, I have known a rapid 
reader tamed into due moderation by being put in com- 
panionship with others of slower speech, just as we 



148 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHINGf 

Its evils.— When ?— The teacher inoTnes Jtis niarlc at recitation. 

tame a friskful colt by harnessing him into a team of 
grave old horses. But aside from such definite purpose, 
I have seen no good come of this innovation. I am 
satisfied its prevalence is an evil, and worthy of the 
careful consideration of teachers. 

By the foregoing means and others which will sug- 
gest themselves to the thoughtful teacher^s mind, he 
can arouse the interest of his classes so that study will 
be more attractive than play. For this object every 
teacher should labor. It is of course impossible to give 
specific rules to meet every case ; it is not desirable to 
do it. The teacher, put upon the track, will easily 
devise his own expedients ; and his own, be it remem- 
bered, ^vill usually he found the hest for him. 

As a motive for every teacher to study carefully the 
art of teaching well at the recitation, it should be borne 
in mind that then and there he comes before his pupils 
in a peculiar and prominent manner ; it is there his 
mind comes specially in contact with theirs, and there 
that he lays in them, for good or for evil, the founda- 
tions of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in a 
peculiar manner, that he makes his marh upon their 
minds ; and as the seal upon the wax, so his mental 
character upon theirs leaves its impress behind ! 



CHAPTER VIII 

EXCITIKG INTEREST IX STUDY 

IT is ever an interesting question to the teacher, and 
one which he should consider with great care — 
'^ How can I excite an interest among my pupils in their 
studies ?" The intelligent teacher feels that this is the 
great question ; for he foresees that, if he fails here, 
his difficulty in governing his school will be very much 
increased. He therefore turns his attention with deep 
solicitude to the motives he may present, and the 
methods he may employ to awaken and keep alive the 
interest of the school. 

If he has reflected at all upon the subject, he has 
already arrived at the conviction, that it is necessary for 
the good of all concerned that the interest awakened 
should be an abiding one ; that it should not only not 
abate during the term of school, but continue — nay, 
grow stronger and stronger — even after school-days 
have passed away. There is probably no greater mis- 
take in education, than that of raising in school an 
artificial excitement, which may aid perhaps in securing 
better recitations, but which will do nothing toward 

putting the mind into such a state that it will press on 

(149) 



150 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A common mistake. —Emulation.— Perplexity. 

ill the pnrsnit of knowledge ever after the living teacher 
lias closed his labors. 

The higher principles of our nature being aroused 
with difficulty, are too apt to be neglected by the 
teacher, and thus they remain in their original feeble- 
ness ; while he contents himself Avith appealing to our 
lower characteristics, — thus doing a lasting injury by 
unduly cultivating and strengthening them, at the 
same time that he awakens after all but a temporary 
interest. 

In view of the importance of the subject, and the 
diihculty of judging aright upon it, I shall make no 
apology for devoting a few pages to the consideration of 

SECTION I — INCENTIVES TO STUDY — EMULATION. 

The teacher will find in a greater or less degree, in 
the mind of every child, the principle of Emulation. 
It is a question very much debated of late, What shall 
he do with it ? Much has been said and written on this 
question, and the ablest minds, both of past ages and 
the present, have given us their conclusions res])ecting- 
it ; and it often increases the perplexity of the young 
teacher to find the widest difi'erence of opinion on this 
subject among men upon whom in other things he 
would confidingly rely for guidance. Why, asks he, 
why is this ? Is there no such thing as truth in this 



EXCITING ]^TEKKST IN^ STUDY 151 

Experimenting.— Its evil consequences. 

matter ? or iiave these men misunderstood each other ? 
AVlien they have written witli so miicli ability and so 
much earnestness, — some zealously recommending em- 
ulation as a safe and desirable principle to be encouraged 
in the young, and others as warmly denouncing it as 
altogether unworthy and improper, — have they been 
thinking of the sa7ne thing? Thus perplexed with 
conflicting opinions, he is thrown back upon his own 
reflection for a decision ; or what is more common, he 
endeavors to find the truth by exi^erimenting upon his 
pupils. He tries one course for one term, and a differ- 
ent one the next ; repeats both during the third, and 
still finds himself unsettled as he commences the fourth. 
Meantime some of his experiments have wrought out a 
lasting injury upon the minds of his pupils ; for, if 
every teacher must settle every doubt by new exjoeri- 
ments upon his classes, the progress that is made in the 
science and art of teaching must be at the untold ex- 
pense of each new set of children ; — just as if the young 
doctor could take nothing as settled by the experience 
of his predecessors, but must try over again for himself 
the effect of all the various medical agents, in order to 
decide whether arsenic does corrode the stomach and 
produce death, — whether cantharides can be best 
applied inwardly or outwardly, — whether mercury is 
jiaost salutary when administered in ounces or grains. 



152 THEORY AISTD PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Two senses.— Define tbe terms. 

or whether repletion or abstinence is preferable in a 
fever ! When such is the course of a young practitioner 
in a community, who does not confidently expect the 
churchyard soon to become the most populous district, 
and the sexton to be the most thrifty personage in the 
village, unless indeed he too should become the subject 
of experiment ? 

But is there not a good sense and a bad sense, asso- 
ciated with the term Emulation ; — and have not these 
eager disputants fallen into the same error, in this mat- 
ter, that the two knights committed, when they 
immolated each other in a contest about the question 
whether a shield was gold or silver, when each had seen 
iut one side of it 9 I incline to the opinion that this is 
the case, — and that those who wax so warm in this con- 
test, would do well to give us at the outset a careful 
depiition of the term Emulation", as they intend to use 
it. This would perhaps save themselves a great deal of 
toil, and their readers a great deal of perplexity. 

Now it seems to me the truth on this question lies 
within a nutshell. 1. If emulation means a desire for 
improvement, progress, groivth, — an ardent wish to rise 
above one's j^resent condition or attainments, — or even 
an aspiration to attain to eminence in the school or in 
the world, it is a laudable motive. This is self-emula- 
tion. It presses the individual on to surpass himself. 



EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 153 

The good sense.— The bad sense. 

It compares his present condition with what he would 
be — with what he ought to be ; and ^'forgetting thosQ 
things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those 
which are before, he presses towards the mark for the 
prize." "An ardor kindled by the praiseworthy 
examples of others, inciting to imitate them, or to 
equal, or even excel them, without the desire of de- 
pressing them",* is the sense in which the apostle 
uses the term [Romans xi. 14] when he says : " If by 
any means I may provoke to emulation them which are 
my flesh, and might save some of them." If this be 
the meaning of emulation, it is every way a worthy 
principle to be appealed to in school. This principle 
exists to a greater or less extent in the mind of every 
child, and may very safely be strengthened by being 
called by the teacher into lively exercise ; provided 
always, that the eminence is sought from a desire to be 
useful, and not from a desire of self-glorification. 

2. But if emulation, on the other hand, means a desire 
of suiyassmg others for the sake of surpassing them ; 
if it be a disposition that will cause an individual to be 
as well satisfied with the highest place, whether he has 
risen above his fellows by his intrinsic well-doing, or 
they have fallen below him by their neglect ; if it puts 
him in such a relation to others that their failures will 

» Dr. Webster, 



154 THEORY AN^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Characteristics.— Ambition. 

be as gratifying to him as Ms own success ; if it be a 
principle that prompts the secret wish in the child that 
others may miss their lessons, in order to give him an 
opportunity to gain applause by a contrast with their 
abasement, — then, without doubt it is an unworthy and 
unholy principle, and should never be encouraged or 
appealed to by the teacher. It has no similitude to 
that spirit which prompts a man to ^^ove his neighbor 
as himself '\ It has none of that generosity which 
rejoices in the success of others. Carried out in 
after-life, it becomes amhition, such as fired the 
breast of a Napoleon, who sought a throne for him- 
self, though he waded through the blood of millions to 
obtain it. 

It is to this principle that the apostle, before quoted, 
alludes, when he classes emulation with the ^'^ works 
of the flesh", which are ihese : "adultery, fornication, 
uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, 
variance, Emulatioi^, wrath, strife, seditions, etc., — of 
the which things, I tell you before, as I have told you 
in times past, that they which do such things shall not 
inherit the kingdom of God.''' It is of this principle 
that the commentator, Scott, remarks: — "This thirst 
for human aj)plause has caused more horrible violations 
of the law of love, and done more to desolate the earth, 
than even the grossest sensuality ever did.'' 



EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 155 

The two views of emulation compared. 

Thus Emulation is a term which indicates a very 
good or a very bad thing, according to the definition 
we give it. In one view of it, the warmest aspirings 
to rise are consistent with a generous wish that others 
may rise also. It is even compatible with a heartfelt 
satisfaction in its possessor, at the progress of others, 
though they should outstrip him in his upward course. 
It is the spirit which actuates all true Christians, as 
they wend their way heavenward, rejoicing the more 
as they find the way is thronged with those who hope 
to gain an immortal crown. 

In the other view of it, we see men actuated by sel- 
fishness mingled with pride, inquiring, in the spirit of 
those mentioned in scripture, " Who among us shall be 
the greatest ? " We everywhere see men violating these 
sacred injunctions of divine wisdom: '^^Let no man 
seek his own, but every man another's wealth."' ^^Let 
nothing be done through strifo or vain-glory ; but in 
lowliness of mind, let each esteem other better than 
themselves." — ''In honor preferring one another." 

If such be the true pictures of emulation, in both the 
good and the bad sense, certainly teachers cannot hesi- 
tate a moment as to their duty. They may apj^eal to 
the principle first described, — cultivate and strengthen 
it ; and in so doing, they may be sure they are doing a 



156 THEORY AND PliACTICE OF TEACHING 

The teacher's duty.— Objections.— Answers. 

good work. But unless they intend to violate the 
teachings of common sense, and the higher teachings 
of Christianity, / hnoiu not liow tliey can aiJincd to the 
principle of enudation as defined in the second case. 

But it may be urged that the teacher will find emula- 
tion, even iii this latter sense, existing in human nature ; 
that he cannot get rid of it if he will ; that it will be 
one of the most active principles to which he can resort 
in arousing the mind to exertion ; and, furthermore, 
that it has been appealed to by many of the most 
eminent teach-ers time out of mind. 

To this it is replied, that it is not disputed that chil- 
dren are selfish ; and that this selfishness may indeed 
be made a powerful instrumentality in urging them 
forward to the attainment of a temporary end. But 
does the existence of selfishness prove that it needs 
cultivation in the human character ? And Avill the end, 
when attained, justify the means ? Is the end, what- 
ever it may be, if attained at such a cost, a blessing to 
be desired ? Will not the heart suffer more than the 
head will gain ? 

It may be further urged, that the child will find the 
world full of this principle when he leaves the school ; 
and why, it is asked, should he at school be thrown into 
an unnatural position ? I answer that evil is not to be 
overcome by making evil more prevalent, — and though 



EXCITING INTEREST IK STUDY 15? 

Furtlier objections.— Emulation not essential to success. 

there may be too much of self-seeking in tlie world, 
that is the very reason why the teacher should not 
encourage its growth. The more true Christianity 
prevails in the world, the less there will be of that 
spirit Avhich rejoices at another's halting ; hence I am 
convinced the teacher should do nothing to make that 
spirit more prevalent. 

Nor is it essential to the progress of the pupil even 
temporarily, since there are other and worthier princi- 
ples which can be as successfully called into action. 
If we look carefully at the expecUe7icy of thus stimu- 
lating the mind, we find that after the first trial of 
strength, many become disheartened and fall behind in 
despair. It will soon be obvious, in a class of twenty, 
who are i\iQ fetu that will be likely to surpass all others ; 
and therefore all the others, as a matter of course, fall 
back into envy, perhaps into hopeless indifference. 
Who has not seen this in a class in spelling, for instance, 
where the strife was for the "lieacl'^ of the class, but 
where all but two or three were quite as well satisfied 
with being at the "foot " ? It does not then accomplish 
the purpose for which it is employed ; and since those 
who are aroused by it are even more injured than those 
who are indifferent, their undesirable qualities being 
thus strengthened, the opinion is entertained that those 
teachers are the most wise^ who bend their ingenuity 



158 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



The conclusion.— Prizes.— Honest investic?ation. 



to find sbme other means to awaken the minds of the 
children under their charge. 

From what has been said, then, Enmlation is to be 
recognized or repudiated among the incentives of the 
schoolroom, according to the signification we assign to 
the term. 

SECTION II — PRIZES 

It has for a long time been the custom of teachers to 
offer ?>om.e prize as an incentive to exertion in school ; 
a j)rize of some pecuniary value, a book, or a medal. 
In some places beneficent individuals have bestowed by 
legacy the means to purchase annually the prizes thus 
to be used. Every young teacher is called upon, there- 
fore, to inquire whether such an incentive is a proper 
one to be employed in the schoolroom. If there is any 
good to be expected from such an incentive, will it 
counterbalance the evils that spring from the practice ? 
Will the good of the whole school be promoted by such 
a measure, — and will this be a permanent or a temporary 
good ? These are questions which press for an honest 
answer ; and the faithful teacher should not shrink 
from a careful investigation of the whole matter ; and 
if he finds good reason to differ from time-honored 
authority, he should abide by the truth rather than by 
prescriptive usage. 



EXClTIi^G INTEREST IK STL'JJY lo9 

Experience.— Its results.— Reasons assigned. 

Ill my own case, I may be allowed to say, my mind 
was early turned to this point ; though, I confess, with 
a strong bias in favor of the use of prizes. Pretty 
thoroughly for a series of years did I test their efficacy, 
but with a growing conviction, that the prize was not 
the proper instrumentality to create a healthy interest in 
the school. This conviction acquired additional strength 
by three or four years^ trial of other incentives ; and it 
was fully confirmed afterwards by a trial made for the 
purpose of testing again the efficacy of a prize, at an 
age when I could more carefully watch the Avorkings of 
the human mind, and better appreciate the benefits or 
evils resulting from such a measure. I am now free to 
say that I am satisfied that prizes offered to a school in 
such a way thctt all may compete for them, and only tivo 
or three oUain them, will ahvays le productive of evil 
consequences, far overhalancing any temporary or partial 
good that may arise from them, and therefore they 
ought not to he used as iyicitements in our schools.^ 

Having expressed an opinion so decidedly upon a 
measure which claims among its friends and advocates 

* It may be Avell to remind the reader that I have used the term Prizes 
■here In contradistinction from a system of Rewards, by which the teacher 
proposes to give some token of his regard to every one who does well,— and 
the more brilliant success of a few does not necessarily preclude others 
from participating In the favor according to their merit. Of such a system 
Of Rewai'ds I shall have something to say presently. 



160 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Prize becomes the leading motive.— Eng-enclers rivalry. 

some of the best minds in the country, I shall be 
expected to assign some reasons for the faith I enter- 
tain. From this I shall not shrink. I proceed there- 
fore to express such objections to the use of prizes, as 
have been suggested to my mind by my own experience, 
and confirmed by the experience and observation of 
others in whom I have great confidence. 

I. The offer of a prize gives undue prominence to a 
comparatively unworthy object. It practically teaches 
the child to undervalue the higher reward of a good 
conscience, and a love of learning for its own sake. 
The dazzling medal is placed in the foreground of hi-s 
field of vision ; and it is very likely to eclipse those less 
showy but more abiding rewards found in a sense of 
duty and a desire to be qualified for usefulness. In 
studying his lesson he thinks of the ^j>r/;2e. He studies 
that he may merely recite well ; for it is a good recita- 
tion that wins the prize. He thinks not of duty, or of 
future usefulness; the ^^rize outshines all other objects. 

II. The p)ursuit of a prize engenders a spirit of 
rivalry among the pupils. Eivalry in pursuit of an 
object which only one can attain, and which all others 
must lose, must end in exultation on the part of the 
winner, and disappointment and envy on the part of tlie 
losers. It may be said, this ought not to he so ; but 
seldom can it be said, that it is not so. Such is human 



EXCITIKG I]S'TEREST IK STUDY 161 

The few only are stimulated.— Exceptions.— In spite of tiie system. 

nature, and such it ever will be. Unpleasant feelings — 
sometimes concealed, to be sure — but generally ex- 
pressed in unequivocal terms — grow out of the award 
of almost every school prize, and sometimes continue 
to exert their baleful influence through life. 'Now as 
long as human nature brings forth unlovely traits almost 
spontaneously, such direct efforts to cultivate them 
surely are not called for. , It is the part of wisdom, 
then, to omit such culture and avoid such results, 
especially when safer means are so accessible. 

III. The Jiojje of gaining the ^Jrize stimulates only the 
few, while the many hecome indifferent. This is ad- 
mitted to be true even by the advocates of the prize 
system. Let a prize be oifered in any class as a reward 
for the best scholarship, and in a very few days it becomes 
perfectly obvious to ad who the two or three are that 
will be likely to outstrip all the others. These two or 
three will be stimulated to exertion ; but tlie strife is 
left entirely to them. All others, despairing of success, 
resolve at once to 'Het their moderation be known to 
all men " ; and since the prize has been made so prom- 
inent an object, they cannot be expected now to look at 
any thing above and beyond it. Feeling that they 
are not Jikely to participate in the honors of the class, 
they have but little disposition to share in its toils. 

This to be sure is not always so. There are some. 



162 THEORY AN^t) PRACTICE OF TEACHING^ 

Why prize scliolars finally fail. 

who, ceasing to strive for tlie prize, toil for the more 
substantial blessing— a good education, — and in the end 
come out the best scholars. This is the way indeed 
most of our strong men are made ; for it has long been 
remarked that the jt^r/^e scholars in our schools, and 
even in our colleges, do not usually become the most 
distinguished men. On the other hand, many of them 
are never heard of after receiving their honors. But, 
though some of the slower scholars do thus hit upon 
the true path to eminence, it is not to be set to the 
credit of the system ; they rise in sinte of the system 
rather than by virtue of it ; while the ultimate failure 
of the prize scholars is usually directly attributable to 
the defect of the system ; for having been unduly stim- 
ulated to study solely with reference to recitation, and 
not with regard to future usefulness, their memories 
have been developed out of all proportion to the other 
faculties of their minds ; and, though they may have 
been very good reciters, they have no power to become 
independent tliinhers. Under different training they 
might have become strong men. 

But to look no further than the school, the remark 
holds true in general, that prizes stimulate the few, and 
tlie many hecome iiidifferent not only to prizes, but to 
other and better motives. That system of incentives 
pnly can be approved which reaches and influences 



EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 163 

The teacher should reach all.— Difficulty in awarding the prize. 

successfully all the mind subjected to its operation. 

Nor is this an unimportant consideration. It is not 
sufficient praise for a teacher that he has a few good 
scholars in his school. Almost any teacher can call 
out the talent of the active scholars and make them 
brilliant reciters. The highest merit, however, lies in 
reaching all the iniinis, the dull as well as the active, 
and in making the most of them, or rather in leading 
them to make the most of themselves. It should be 
remembered of every child, that the present is his only 
opportunity of being a child, and of receiving the train- 
ing appropriate to childhood ; and that teacher who 
rests satisfied with a system that does not reach the 
many, while he amuses himself and his visitors with 
the precocity of a few of his most active scholars, is 
recreant to his resjionsihle trust. 

IV. Titer e is much difficulty in aumrding the 'prize 
so as to do strict justice to all. So many things are to 
be taken into the account in order to determine the 
excellence of a performance compared with others, that 
some particulars are very likely to be overlooked. 
Those who are called to judge of the results often dis- 
agree among themselves. The following anecdote will 
illustrate this. Three literary gentlemen were appointed 
to select the best from several compositions, presented 
by a class, who had written them in competition for a 



164 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Judges disagi-ee.— A fact.— The parties dissatisfied. 

gold medal. Each of the gentlemen carefully read the 
whole number in private, and conscientiously selected 
the hest according to his judgment. When they came 
together to comi^are results, it was found that each man 
had selected the lest, but that no two had selected the 
same ! They carefully read and compared the three, 
and still each insisted that his original choice was the 
best. After much debate and considerable delay, one 
of the parties being obliged to go to his business, re- 
lieved himself from a painful detention, and his friends 
from a perplexing doubt, by saying he believed the 
composition he had selected was the test, but, as he 
could not stop to claim its rights, he would yield them 
in favor of the second best in the hands of one of his as- 
sociates. This ended the dispute, and the action in favor 
of the successful one, was declared to be una7iimous ! 

This only proves how difficult it is to decide ; and in 
the case just cited, it might well be asked, why should 
one of these competitors be held up to the multitude to 
be applauded and admired, and the others sent back to 
their classes covered with the shame of a failure : 
What principle oi justice sanctioned this decision ? 

Nor is this a solitary instance. It rarely happens 
that the case is perfectly clear. There is usually much 
perplexity about it ; and hence one reason why the de- 
cision seldom satisfies the friends of the parties eithei 



EXCITING IJSfTEKPJST IN STUDY 165 

Various external aids: exemplified.— Improper means used. 

in the school or at home. But other considerations 
besides the intrinsic merits of the performance are to 
be taken into account in awarding a prize ; as, 

1. A difference in the external facilities ivliicli tlie 
competitors enjoy for getting the lessons. One pupil 
may be the son of poverty, and be compelled to labor 
during all the hours out of school ; another may be in 
easy circumstances, and have nothing to prevent giving 
undivided attention to study during the whole day. 
One may be the child of parents who have no power to 
render assistance by way of explaining a difficult ^ooint ; 
while the other may have all his doubts removed at 
once by parental aid. One may never even be encour- 
aged by a kind word at home ; another is constantly 
urged to effort, and perhaps not allowed to be idle. 
One may have access to no books but his school- 
manuals ; the other may have at his command a large 
library. This difference in circumstances should be 
taken into the account ; but it never can be fully un- 
derstood by those who are called to decide. 

2. Tlie improper means ivhich may have teen em- 
ployed to secure the prize. Ambition when aroused is 
not always scrupulous of its means. One competitor 
may be high-minded ; may enter the arena determined 
to succeed by an honorable strife ; may resolve to suc- 
ceed by his own exertions, or to fail rather thaij bring 



166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

An "authoress !" 

in anything which is not the fruit of his own study. 
Another, regardless of honor or principle, resolves only 
to succeed, whatever it may cost ; hesitates not to copy 
from others if possible, or to apply to a brother in 
college or some friend in the High School to furnish 
the difficult solution, prepared to order. One young 
lady spends days and nights in arranging the glowing 
thoughts for her composition, determined if industry, 
study, good taste, and a careful application of the rules 
of rhetoric can effect anything, that her production 
shall be worthy of a prize. Another, in no way dis- 
tinguished for scholarship, industry, or honor, writes a 
careless letter to a married sister in a distant city, 
invoking her aid. In due time the mail brings an 
elegant essay. It is copied with sufficient accuracy to 
be read, and at the examination takes the prize ! The 
fair '' author ess'' stands forth and is flattered before the 
multitude, — is perhaps made to believe that she is 
worthy of praise ; she grasps the golden bauble, and, 
covered with the blushes of modesty, receives the con- 
gratulations and caresses of friends, and is afterwards 
reputed a good scholar. Her competitors meantime 
become convinced that effort cannot rival genius ; they 
are mortified to think they have presumed to enter the 
arena with native talent, and become disheartened as to 
any future attempt. 



EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 167 

Abuses.— system unsafe.— Success overrated. 

Now where is the justice in all this proceeding ? Yet 
this is not fiction ; it is history ! If such abuses — 
abuses that might well make an angel weep, revealing, 
as they do, that woman^s heart can be thus sold to de- 
ception — are the accompaniments of a prize system, 
may we not well doubt the utility of that system ? 

Yet who can know either the different facilities en- 
joyed by the competitors, or the want of principle in 
some of them ? Who can enter the secret chambers of 
the mind or the heart, and estimate with any accuracy 
the just amount of merit in any action ? This is God^s 
prerogative ; while " man looketh only on the outward 
appearance." My inference then is : A system can 
hardly he safe whicli is so uncertain. 

V. The inize reiuards success, not effort ; talent, 
not WORTH. Every one knows that in estimating the 
value and virtue of an action, the motive which prompted 
it, and the effort it necessarily cost, should be taken into 
the account. Every one knows, too, tliat success in 
study is by no means a criterion by which to judge of the 
merits of the scholar. Some learn their lessons with 
great facility and with but little effort ; others study long 
and patiently without any brilliant results. One com- 
petitor for a prize may bring results which have cost him 
midnight toil and the most unremitting perseverance : 
another with brighter parts, and with but little labor, is 



168 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

But God rewards.— How ? 

able to surpass him^ and takes the medal. Now the former 
deserves in a far higher degree the encouragement of the 
reward ; yet it is given to him who has the talent but who 
lacks the industry. The rule of Scripture which an- 
nounces that " to whom much is given, of him slialhnuch 
he required'', is violated, and he is rewarded for pro- 
ducing but little more than the one to whom little is given. 
It is often urged by those who advocate a system of 
prizes and rewards, that God reivards ; and therefore 
it is at least justifiable that we should imitate his 
example. I admit that God, in his government, does 
reward ; but he rewards effort rather than success; he 
^Mooketh upon the heart ^' as man cannot do, and re- 
wards worth, not talent. We might, indeed, imitate 
his example, if we had less frailty, and were not so 
liable to be imposed upon by the outward appearance. 
God indeed rewards men ; but he estimates the secret 
intention, seeing the inward springs of thought before 
they find expression in words or actions. He regards 
the motive, and holds out for the encouragement of the 
humblest child of earth, who does the best he can, as 
rich a crown of glory, as he does for those whose out- 
ward circumstances, in the eyes of mortals, are more 
auspicious. Wlien man can as wisely and as righteously 
bestow his prizes and rewards, there will be far less 
objection to their use. 



EXCITINO INTEREST IN STUDY 169 

Studying for a prize onlj'.— Argument perverted. 

VI. The piqyil who studies for a prize as his chief 
motive, ivill seldo7n continue to study ivhen the prize is 
withdrcmn. This is so obvious as scarcely to need 
illustration. If it be necessary to add anything to the 
mere statement of the fact^ an appeal to almost univer- 
sal experience would confirm it. A teacher who has 
depended upon prizes in a school, finds it very difficult 
to awaken an interest there when he withdraws the 
prize. Hence many have^ on trying the experiment of 
abandoning the prize system, become discouraged, and 
have returned again to tlio use of j^rizes, believing them 
essential to their success. Thus the very argument 
which shows most clearly their pernicious tendency, is 
made a reason for continuing them. As before hinted, 
the prize scholars in our academies, and even our col- 
leges, are seldom distinguished men in after-life, — a 
fact that speaks conclusively on this point. But it can 
scarcely be necessary to spend words to "^rove a truth 
almost self-evident. 

VII. By the pirize system, the influence of the good 
example of some of the test pupils, is lost upon the 
school. All who have taught, know how important 
this influence is to the success of the school. It tells 
with resistless power upon the other scholars, wherever 
it exists, unless some uuAvorthy motive can be assigned 
for it. But under the prize system, let a teacher appeal 



170 THEOKY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHIl^^G 

" He is studying for tne prize."— System of rewards.— Not necessary, 

to the example of his best scholars, and the reply is, 
^^ Oh, yes, he behaves well, or he studies diligently, but 
he is tryi7ig to get the prize." With this understanding, 
his example becomes powerless, unless, indeed, there 
may be a disposition to be unlike him in every thing. 
It is believed this is a consideration of considerable im- 
portance. 

I have thus assigned, at some length, the reasons 
why I should discountenance, among the incentives of 
the school, the use of Prizes. As to the use of '^ Re- 
wards ", when they are made so numerous that every 
one who is really deserving may receive one, — and when 
the basis of their distribution is not talent, not success 
merely, but good intention and praiseworthy effort, — I 
have much less to say. As expressions of the teacher^s 
interest in the children, and of his approval of their 
well-doing, they may serve a good end. Perhaps there 
is no very strong objection to them in principle ; though 
if the teacher subjects himself to the necessary outlay 
in the purchase of them, it may become burdensome to 
him. I may add, however, that / do not thinTc reivards 
are necessary to the teacher^s success. I should prefer 
to do without them. It is possible to produce such a 
feeling in the schoolroom that the approving con- 
science of the child and the commendatory smile of 
the teacher shall be the richest of all rewards, These 



EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 171 



Wliy not?— Safe incentives.— ApproTjatlon of friends. 



come without money and without price, and may always 
be freely and safely bestowed, wherever there is a good 
intention exhibited by the child. That is the most 
healthy state of things where these are most prized. 
As children whose parents begin early to hire them to 
do their dnty, are seldom ready afterwards to render 
their cheerful service as an act of filial obligation, when- 
ever the pay is withheld, — so children at school, who 
have been accustomed to expect a reward, seldom pur- 
sue their studies as cheerfully when that expectation 
is cut off. 

SECTION III — PROPER INCENTIVES 

In what has already been said, it has been more than 
hinted that there are higher attributes than emula- 
tion, which the teacher should address, and which, if 
he is successful in calling them into exercise, will be 
quite sufficient to ensure the proper application of his 
pupils to their studies. They have the merit, moreover, 
of being safe. They do not unduly stimulate the in- 
tellectual, at the expense of the moral faculties. Their 
very exercise constitutes a healthy growth of the moral 
nature. Some of these I may briefly allude to. 

I. A DESIRE TO GAIN THE APPROBATION OF THEIR 

PARENTS AND TEACHER. — The lovc of approbation is' 
^§ universal in the human mind as emulation. Not one 



172 THEORY AND niACTICE OF TEACHING 



Twice blest."— Desii-e to advance. 



in ci thousand can be found wlio does not possess it. 
Within 2:)]'0|)er limits, it is a desirable trait in human 
character. It is, to be sure, one of the selfish propen- 
sities ; but among them all, it is the most innocent. 
Carried to an extreme, it -would lead its possessor to 
crave the good opinion of the bad as well as of the 
good, and to become an obsequious seeker after popu- 
larity. This, of course, is to be deprecated. But 
there can be no danger of this extreme, as long as the 
approbation of parents and teachers is tlie object aimed 
at. It implies in the child a respect for the opinions, 
and a confidence in the justice of his parents and 
teachers ; and hence it implies in him a generous de- 
sire to please, as a condition of being commended by 
them. 

In this sense, the love of approbation may be ap- 
pealed to by the teacher. He perhaps need not fre- 
quently use the language of praise. It will generally 
be sufficient, if the smile of approval beams forth in his 
countenance. If he is judicious as well as just, this 
boon soon becomes a precious oue to the child. It is a 
rev\^ard moreover, which 

" is twice blest ; 
It biessetli liim wlio gives and liini who takes." 

II. A DESIRE OP ADVANCEMENT. — This is emulation 
in its (/ood sense. It leads the child, as before remarked, 



EXCITIKG INTEREST IN" STUDY l'j'3 



Desire to l3e useful.— Desire to do riglit. 



to compare his present standing and attainments with 
what they should be, and to desire to surpass himself. 
This is ever commendable. Man was made for progress ; 
and it is no unworthy aspiration, when this desire fires 
the youthful breast. The teacher, then, may appeal to 
this desire, may kindle it into a flame even, with 
safety,— because it is a flame that warms without con- 
suming that on which it feeds. 

III. A DESIRE TO BE USEFUL.-The good tcaclier should 
never fail to impress upon the child that the object of 
his being placed on earth, was that he might be of some 
use to the world by which he is surrounded. '' No man 
liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself He can 
be thus useful by storing the mind with knowledge and 
the heart with right affections. He may be reminded 
of the connection between his present studies, and the 
pursuits of life to which they may be applied. Some 
judicious hint at the future application of any branch 
is always a good preparation of the mind to pursue it. 
If there is a definite object in view, there will always be 
more alacrity in the labor of study ; and this may be 
made to influence the young pupil as well as the more 
advanced. It is no small thing for the child if he can 
be early made to feel that he is living to some purpose. 

IV. A DESIRE TO DO RIGHT. — This, in other words, 
is a disposition to obey conscience by conforming to the 



174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Conscience active in cliildlioocl. 

will of God. This indeed is the highest and holiest of 
all the motives to human action. In its fullest sense it 
constitutes the fundamental principle of a religious 
character. The teacher should most assiduously culti- 
vate in the child a regard for this principle. God has 
implanted the conscience in every child of earth, that 
it should early be made use of to regulate the conduct. 
That teacher is either grossly ignorant or madly per- 
verse, who disregards the conscience, while he appeals 
alone to the selfishness of the young, and thus practi- 
cally teaches that moral obligation is a nullity ; that 
the law of God — so beautifully expounded by the 
Saviour — " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all 
thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind,^' 
and ^'^Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself ^^ — is of 
little consequence ; and that the injunction of the 
apostle — ^' Whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye 
do, do all to the glory of God,^^ is as good as obsolete. 

In early chilhood the conscience is most active. It 
needs, to be sure, at that period to be enlightened ; but 
if the teachings of Revelation are made plain to the 
child, he seldom disregards them. The teacher has at 
this period very much to do, as I have before said in 
the chapter on Responsibility of Teachers ; and he 
cannot neglect his duty without the most aggravated 
v^ulpability. The point I urge here, is, that he should 



EKCITING INTEKEST IK STUDY 11f6 

Sense of obligation. 

use these motives as incentives to study. The child 
can be made to feel that he owes the most diligent 
efforts for improvement to his teacher, who daily labors 
for his improvement ; to his parents, who have kindly 
supplied his wants, and have provided the means for his 
cultivation ; to society, whose privileges he may enjoy, 
and to which he is bound to make a return by becom- 
ing an intelligent and useful member of it ; to himself, 
as a rational and immortal being, capable of unbounded 
enjoyment or untold misery, just in proportion as he pre- 
pares himself for either ; and above all to his Ckeator, 
by whose bounty he lives, surrounded with friends and 
blessed with opportunities, which are denied to millions 
of his fellow-beings, — by whose gracious providence he 
has been endowed with faculties and capabilities making 
him but little lower than the angels, and which he is 
bound to cultivate for usefulness and for heaven, — by 
whose mercy he has been supplied, as millions have not, 
with the word of God, to guide his mind to things above, 
and with the influences of Christian society, to cheer 
him in his path to heaven ; — above all, I repeat, should 
the child be taught to feel that he owes to God his best 
efforts to make the most of all his powers for time and 
eternity. If this can be done, (and I believe to a great 
extent it can be done,) there will be no need of a resort 
to those questionable incentives found in exciting chil- 



176 THEORY AXD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

■ • 

The pleasure of acquisition.— Acquirements of tliree years. 

clren to outstrip their fellows by prizes and rewards ; 
while in this very process the foundation of a good 
moral training will be laid, without which the perfect 
structure of a noble character can never be reared in 
later life. 

To the motives already alluded to, if it be necessary 
to add another, I would urge, 

V. The PLEASURE of acquisition. — This is often 
underrated by teachers. Our Creator has not more 
universally bestowed a natural appetite for the food 
which is necessary for the growth of the body, than he 
has a mental longing for the food of the mind ; and as 
he has superadded a sensation of pleasure to the neces- 
sary act of eating, so he has made it a law of the mind 
to experience its highest delight while in the act of re- 
ceiving the mental aliment. Whoever has observed 
childhood with an attentive eye, must have been im- 
jjressed with the wisdom of God in this arrangement. 
How much the child acquires within the first three 
years after its birth ! He learns a difficult language 
with more precision than a well-educated adult for- 
eigner could learn it in the same time ; yet language is 
not his only or his chief study. During these same 
three years, he makes surprising advances in general 
knowledge. He seeks an intimate acquaintance with 
all the physical objects by which he is surrounded, 



■EXClTlKft iNtERtlST IK STUDY 177 

Mr. Maun quotetl.— The blind and the dumb. 

The size, form, color, weight, temperature, and use of 
each are investigated by the test of his own senses, or 
ascertained by innumerable inquiries. His ideas of 
height and distance, of light and heat, of motion and 
velocity, of cause and effect, are all well defined. He 
has made no mean attainments in morals. He com- 
l^rehends the law of right and wrong so that his decis- 
ions may well put to the blush his superiors in age ; 
and unless grossly neglected, he has learned the duty 
of obedience to parents and reverence towards God. 
Now all this amazing progress has been made, because 
of the irrepressible curiosity with which God has en- 
dowed him, and the unspeakable delight 1 e experiences 
in acquiring the knowledge which gratifies it. 

All must have noticed the delight with which the 
child grasps a new idea ; but a few have been able so 
eloquently to describe it, as it is done by Mr. Mann. 
''Mark a cliikl," says he, ''when a clear, well-defined, 
vivid conception seizes it. The whole nervous tissue 
vibrates. Every muscle leaps. Every joint plays. 
The face becomes auroral. The spirit flashes through 
the body like lightning through a cloud. 

"Observe, too, the blind, the deaf, and the dumb. 
So strong is their inborn desire for knowledge, — such 
are the amazing attractive forces of their minds for it, 
that although the natural inlets, the eye and the ear, are 



178 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Tills pleasure abates In after life.— Mind may be surfeited. 

closedy yet they will draw it inward, through the solid 
walls and encasements of the body. If the eye be cnr- 
taihed with darkness, it will enter through the ear. If 
the ear be closed in silence, it will ascend along the 
nerves of touch. Every new idea that enters into the 
presence of the sovereign mind, carries offerings of 
delight with it, to make its coming welcome. Indeed, 
our Maker created us in blank ignorance, for the very 
purpose of giving us the boundless, endless j)leasure of 
learning new things.''^ 

It is, of course, not to be expected that the same 
degree of pleasure will attend the learner in every 
acquisition as the novelty diminishes, and as he ad- 
vances in age. The bodily appetite is less keen in after 
life than in childhood, so that the adult may never 
realize again to the full extent the delicious flavors 
which regaled him in his earliest years. Still there 
will ever be a delight in acquisition ; and to carry our 
illustration a little further, — as the child is soonest 
cloyed whose stomach is surfeited with dainties, and 
stimulated with condiments, and pampered with sweet- 
meats, till his taste has lost its acumen and digestion 
becomes a burden ; so the mental appetite is soonest 
destroyed, when, under the unskillful teacher, it is 
overloaded with what it can neither digest nor dis- 
gorge. The mind may be surfeited ; and then no 



EXCITING iXTEREST IK" STUDY 17(1 

A desire tx) know.— Instance of God's wisdom and goodness. 

wonder if it loathes even the wholesome aliment. Arti- 
ficial stimulants, in the shape of prizes, and honors, and 
flattery, and fear, and shame, may have impaired its 
functions, so that it ceases to act except under their 
excitement. But all must see that these are unnatural 
conditions, superinduced by erroneous treatment. 
There is still a delight in acquisition, just as soon as the 
faculties are aroused to the effort ; and the skillful 
teacher will strive to wahe iip the mind to find this de- 
light, — and if he understands his work, he will scarcely 
need a stronger incentive. If he understands the secret 
of giving just so much instruction as to excite the 
learner's curiosity, and then to leave him to discover 
and acquire for himself, he will have no necessity to 
use any other means as stimulants to exertion. 

To this might be added that irrejjressilile curiosity, 
that all-pervading desire to Icnoio, which is found in the 
mind of every child. The mind, as if conscious of its 
high destiny, instinctively spreads its unfledged wings 
in pursuit of knowledge. This, with some children, is 
an all-sufficient stimulant to the most vigorous exertion. 
To this the teacher may safely appeal. Indeed, it is a 
convincing proof of the wisdom as well as the goodness 
of God, that this desire to hnow, as well as the delight 
of acquisition, are the most active at that early period 
of childhood, when a just appreciation of the utility of 



180 Tiii:dKY akd practice Of TEACHiKa 



A scholium. 



knowledge, and the higher motives already detailed, 
could scarcely*find a lodgement in the tender mind. It 
seems to be, tlierefore, an indisputable dictate of our 
very nature, that both these 2^rinciples should be early 
employed as incentives. 

If, then, the desire of the approval of parents and 
teachers, — the desire of advancement, — the desire to he 
iisefiil, — and the desire to do right, can be superadded 
to the natural love in the child for acquisition, and a 
natural desire to know, there will, as I believe, be but 
little occasion to look further for incentives to exertion 
in the pupil ; and I may venture to add, as a scholium 
to what has already been said, that the teacher who has 
not yet learned to call into exercise these higher motives, 
and to rely for success mainly upon them, and who 
dares not abandon the system of exciting stimulants for 
fear of a failure, has yet mnch to learn as a true educator 
of the young. 



CHAPTER IX 

SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 

IT is not necessary that any space in this work shonki 
be occupied in speaking of the importance of order 
in onr schools. Everybody who has written or spoken 
on this subject, has conceded the necessity of obedience 
on the part of the pupih " Order is heaven's first 
LAW ; '^ and it is scarcely more essential to the harmony 
of heaven, than it is to the happiness and success of the 
school. 

If such be the necessity of order in the school, then the 
ability to secure and maintain it is no mean j^art of the 
qualification of the good teacher. It is lamentable that 
so many fail in this particular ; and yet this frequent 
failure can in most cases be traced to some defect in the 
constitutional temperament, or some deficiency in the 
mental or moral culture of the teacher himself. It 
shall be my first object, then, to point out some of the 

section I — requisites in the teacher FOR GOOD 
GOVERNMENT. 

I. Self-government. — It has frequently been said 

that no man can govern others till he has learned to 

(181) 



182 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Angry passions.— Manner.— Levity and moroseness. 



govern himself. I have no doubt of the ti-nth of this. 
If an individual is not perfectly self-possessed, his 
decisions must fail to command respect. The self- 
government of the teacher should be complete, in the 
following particulars : 

1. ^5 to tlie 2)assion of anger. The exhibition of 
anger alwa3'S detracts from the weight of authority. A 
man under its influence is not capable of doing strict 
justice to his pupils. Before entering upon teaching, 
therefore, a man should somehow obtain the mastery 
over his temper, so that under any provocation he can 
control it. lie should consider that in school his 
patience will often be severely tried. He should not 
expect, indeed, that the current of affairs in school will 
for a single day run perfectly smooth. He should, 
therefore, prepare for the worst, and firmly resolve 
that, whatever unpleasant thing shall occur, it shall 
not take him entirely by surprise. Such forethought 
will give him self-command. If, however, from his 
past experience, and from the nature of his tempera- 
ment, he is satisfied he cannot exercise this self-control, 
he may be assured he is the wrong man to engage in 
teaching. A man who has not acquired thorough 
ascendancy over his own passions, is an unsafe man to 
be intrusted with the government of children. 

2. As to levity and moroseness of manner. Either 



SCHOOL GOVERN' MEKT 183 

Ridiculous assumption of smartness. 

extreme is to be tivoided. There are some teachers 
who exhibit such a frivolity in all their intercourse 
with their pupils, that they can never command them 
with authority, or gain their cordial respect. This is a 
grievous fault ; and the teacher should at once find an 
antidote for it, by serious reflection upon the responsi- 
bility of his position. If this will not cure it, nothing 
else can. 

There are others who are characterized by a per- 
petual pevishness, so that a pleasant word from them is 
indeed a strange thing. They can never expect to gain 
the affections of their pupils ; and without securing the 
love of children, the government of them will never be 
of the right kind. This habit of snapjjisliness should 
be broken up at once. 

There are some very young teachers, who sometimes 
assume one or the other of these peculiar modes of 
address, or perhaps both, to be used alternately, — fancy- 
ing that they will gain popularity by the one, or give 
themselves greater authority by the other. This is 
a very mistaken notion ; for children have more 
discernment than most men give them credit for, and 
they usually see directly through such a flimsy dis- 
guise, — and the teacher becomes ridiculous rather than 
great in their estimation, whenever he takes any such 
false position. 



184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

"Mr. Abbotts case.—" Take off your hats. " 

Mr. Abbott, in his ^^ Teacher/^ states a fact which 
well illustrates this point. ^^Many years ago," says 
he, ^^when I was a child, the teacher of the school 
where my early studies were performed, closed his 
connection with the establishment, and, after a short 
vacation, another was expected. On the appointed 
day the boys began to collect, some from curiosity, at 
an early hour, and many speculations were started as 
to the character of the new instructor. We were stand- 
ing near a table with our hats on, — and our position, 
and the exact appearance of the group is indelibly 
fixed on my memory, — when a small and youthful- 
looking man entered the room and walked up towards 
us. Supposing him to be some stranger, or rather, not 
making any supposition at all, we stood looking at him 
as he approached, and were thunder-struck at hearing 
him accost us with a stern voice, and sterner brow : — 
' Take off your hats ! Take off your hats, and go to 
your seats.' The conviction immediately rushed upon 
our minds that this must be the new teacher. The first 
emotion was that of surprise, and the second was that 
of the ludicrous ; though I believe we contrived to 
smother the laugh until we got out into the open air.'' 

The true rule is to act the part which is agreeable to 
nature. The teacher having gained the self-command 
just insisted upon, and having in him the spirit of 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 185 



Treatment of peculiar pupils.— Injusti ce.— Self-reliance. 

kindness and a desire to be useful, should assume 
nothing unnatural for effect. His manner should be 
truly dignified, but courteous. 

3. As to his treatment of tJwse picpils that are marhed 
hy soine peculiarity. There will usually be some pupils 
who are very backward, and perhaps very dull,— or who 
may have some physical defect, or some mental eccen- 
tricity. The teacher should be able to govern himself 
in all his remarks concerning such pupils. He should 
avoid allusion to such singularities before the school ; 
and it is the height of injustice — I was about to say, of 
malevolence — for him ever to use those low and de- 
grading epithets so often found upon the teacher^s 
tongue, — such as dunce, thickskull, and the like. Is 
it not misfortune enough for a child to be backward or 
dull, without having the pain and mortification in- 
creased by the cruelty of an unfeeling teacher ? The 
teacher should take a special interest in such children ; 
he should endeavor to enter into the feelings of their 
parents, and to treat them in such a way as to en- 
courage rather than crush them. 

II. A CONFIDENCE IN HIS ABILITY TO GOVERN.— We 

can generally do what we firmly believe we can do. At 
any rate, a man is more likely to succeed in any enter- 
prise, when he has the feeling of self-reliance. The 
teacher, by reflection upon the importance of good 



186 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Views ol government.— Not tyranny. 

government to his success, and by a careful study of 
the means to be employed and the motives to be pre- 
sented, should be able to bring himself to the determi- 
nation to have good order in his school, and so fully to 
believe he can have it, that his pupils shall detect no 
misgivings in him on this point. Whenever they dis- 
cover that he has doubts of his success in governing, 
they will be far more ready to put his skill to the test. 
It would be better that a young teacher should decline 
to take a difficult school, rather than enter it without 
the full belief of his ability to succeed. I would not 
wish to be understood by these remarks to be en- 
couraging an unreasonable and Uincl i)ve8umption. A 
confidence in one^s ability should be founded upon a 
reasonable estimate of his powers, compared with the 
difficulties to be overcome. What I recommend is, 
that the teacher should carefully weigh the difficulties, 
and candidly judge of his own resources, and then 
undertake nothing which he thinks is beyond his ability. 
If, after this, he believes he can succeed, other things 
being equal, success is almost certain. 

III. Just views of Government. — 1. It is not 
tyranny, exercised to please the one who governs, or 
to promote his own convenience. The despot com- 
mands for the sake of being obeyed. But government 
in its proper sense, is an arrangement for the general 



SCHOOL GOVEKNMEl^T 187 

Uniform. —Equality. 

good, — for the benefit of the governed as well as of the 
ruler. That is not good government which seeks any 
other object. The teacher should so view the matter ; 
and in establishing any regulations in school, he should 
always inquire whether they are suggested by a selfish 
regard to his own ease, or whether they spring from a 
sincere and disinterested wish to promote the improve- 
ment of the school. 

2. He should see the necessity of making the govern- 
ment uniform ; that is, the same from day to day. If 
he punishes to-day what he tolerates to-morrow, he 
cannot expect the cordial respect of his pupils. Some 
teachers, not having learned the art of self-government, 
take counsel too much of their own feelings. To-day 
they are in good health and spirits, and their faces are 
clothed in sunshine; they can smile at any thing. 
To-morrow, suffering under bad digestion, or the want 
of exercise, or the want of sleep, the thunder-storm 
hovers about their brow, ready to burst upon the first 
offender. Woe to the luckless wight wlio does not 
seasonably discover this change in the condition of the 
weather. A teaclier cannot long respect himself who is 
thus capricious ; he may be sure his school will not 
long respect him. 

3. He should so view government as to make it equal ; 
that is, equal in its application to the whole school, — 



188 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIl^G 

No aristocracy in school.— No partiality. 

the large as well as small scholars, the males as well as 
females. This is often a great fault with teachers. 
They raise up a sort of aristocracy in their schools, a 
privileged class, a miniature nobility. They will insist 
that the little boys and girls shall abstain from certain 
practices, — whispering, for instance, — and most prompt- 
ly punish the offenders, while they tolerate the same 
thing among the larger pupils. This is cowardly in 
itself, and as im2:)olitic as it is cowardly. The teacher 
makes a great mistake who begins his government with 
the small children, in the hope of frightening the 
larger ones into obedience. He should have the man- 
liness and the justice to begin with the larger pupils ; 
the smaller ones never resist, when authority is estab- 
lished with those above them. Besides this, the very 
class who are thus indulged, are the very ones who 
soonest despise, and justly too, the authority of the 
teacher. 

He should make his government im])artial in every 
respect. He should have no favorites — no preferences 
based upon the outward circumstances of the child, his 
family, or his personal attractions, and the like. The 
rich and the poor should be alike to the teacher. He 
should remember that each child has a soul ; and it is 
with the soul, and not with the wealth of this world, 
that he has to do. He should remember that a gem. 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 18^ 



Views ottlie governed.— Reason.— Affection.— Conscience. 

as bright as a sunbeam, is often concealed nnder a 
rough exterior. It shonki be his work, nay his delight 
— to bring ont this gem from its hiding-place, and 
apply to it the polish of a " workman that needeth not 
to be ashamed '\ 

IV. Just views of the Governed. — Notwithstand- 
ing the imperfection of human nature, as developed in 
the young, they have some redeeming qualities. They 
are intelligent and reasonable beings. They have more 
or less love of approbation ; they have affection, and, 
above all, they have a moral sense. All these qualities 
are considerably developed before they enter the school. 
The teacher should remember this, and prepare himself 
to address, as far as may be, all tliese. Love of «;j7_;ro- 
hation, as we have before seen, is not an unworthy 
motive to be addressed, and it is well known that many 
children are very easily controlled by it. It is not the 
highest motive, to be sure, nor is it tlie lowest. The 
affection for a teacher, which many children will ex- 
ercise, is one of the most powerful instrumentalities in 
governing them with ease. The conscience, early 
trained, is all-powerful. I allude to these principles of 
action once more, in order to say that the peculiar 
character of each should be well studied by the teacher. 
He should understand the human mind so well as to be 
able to find the avenues to these better parts of the 



190 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Decision.— Firmness.— Tlie unjust judge. 

child's nature, remembering that wlienever several 
ways are presented of doing the same thing, it is always 
wise to choose the best. 

V. Decision and Firmness. — By decision, I mean 
a readiness to determine and to act in any event just as 
duty seems to dictate ; a willingness to take the respon- 
sibility just as soon as the way is plain, ^y firmness, 
is meant that fixedness of jmrpose which resolutely car- 
ries out a righteous decision. Both of these qualities 
are essential to good government in the teacher. Much 
time is often lost by a teacher's vacillating when action is 
more important. Besides, if the pupils discover that the 
teacher hesitates, and dreads to take any responsibility, 
they very soon lose their respect for him. I would not 
urge that a teacher should act hastily. He never should 
decide till he is confident he decides right ; any delay 
is better than hasty error. But his delay, in all matters 
of government, should have reference to a true knowl- 
edge of his duty; when that is clearly known, he 
should be decided. 

Many teachers suffer in their government for want 
of firmness. They act npon the principle of j)ersonal 
convenience, as did the unjust judge mentioned in the 
parable. '' And he would not for a while ; but after- 
wards he said within himself. Though I fear not God 
nor regard man ; yet hecause this widow troubleth me, 



SCHOOL OOVEJiNMKiNT 11)1 

A practical example.— Philosopliizing.— Conclusion. 

I will arise and avenge her, lest hy her continual coming 
she weary me." How often we hear something like 
this in the schoolroom. ^"^May I go and drink ?^' — 
says James, in a peculiarly imploring tone, "^o," 
says the teacher, promptly, and evidently without any 
reflection as to the decision he has made. James very 
composedly sits down, eyeing the countenance of the 
teacher expressively, as much as to say, 'TU try you 
again soon." Before long he observes the teacher quite 
busy with a class, and he again pops the question : 
" May I go and drink ? '' Stung at the moment with 
impatience at the interruption, the teacher answers 
instantly and emphatically, ''jSTo, no, James ; sit down." 
J.imes still watches his teacher's expression, and cannot 
discover there any signs of a mind seeking the path of 
duty, and he silently thinks to himself, ''The third 
time never fails." So, after a minute or two, when the 
teacher is somewhat puzzled with a knotty question, 
and is on i\\Q point of nibbing a pen besides, — "May I 
go and drink, sir ? " again rings upon the teacher's 
ear. '' Yes, yes, yes ! do go along ; / suppose you'll 
keep ashing till you get it." 

Now James goes to drink, and then returns to 
philosophize npon this matter, perhaps as follows : — 
''I don't believe he stopped to think whether I needed 
drink or not ; therefore hereafter I shall never believe . 



193 THEORY AKD PKACTICE OF TEACHIKO 

A loetter way.— Moral and religious principle. 

he really means 710, when he says it. He acts without 
thought. I have also found that if I will but ask 
several times I shall get it. So I shall know how to 
proceed next time.^^ — I do not know that any child 
would express this thought in so many words ; but the 
impression upon his mind is none the less distinct. 

Now the teacher should carefully consider the ques- 
tion addressed to him. How long since this child had 
water ? Can it be necessary for him to drink so often ? 
Then let the answer be given mildly, but decidedly — 
^'^0, James. ^' The very manner, quite likely, will 
settle the question, so that James will not ask again. 
The answer once given should be finnly adhered to. 
It would even be better that James should suffer for 
the want of water than for the want of confidence in 
his teacher^s firmness. In this way the teacher would 
establish his word with the school in a very few days ; 
and his pupils would soon learn that with him " no 
means no,"' and '^' yes means yes^^ — a matter of no small 
importance to the teacher of a school. 

VI. Deep Moral Principle. — The teacher should 
ever be a conscientious man ; and in nothing is this 
more necessary than in the exercise of good government. 
In this matter the teacher can never respect himself 
when he acts from caprice or selfishness. His inquiry 
should be. What is right ? What is justice — justice to 



SCHOOL GOTEEKMENT 193 

First impressions. 

my pupils — to myself ? And if he could add to moral 
obligation the high sanctions of religious principle, and 
could habitually and sincerely turn his thoughts to his 
Maker, with the heartfelt inquiry — What wilt thou 
have me to do ? — then he would seldom err in the dis- 
charge of this trust. His pupils, seeing that he acted 
from fixed and deep principle, would respect his 
honesty, even if he should cross their desires. 

Having now dwelt at some length upon the requisites 
in the teacher for good government, I shall next proceed 
to present some of the 

sectioi^ ii — means of securing good order. 

1. Be careful as to the first impression you 
MAKE. — It is an old proverb, that ^^what is well begun 
is half done." This holds true in school-keeping, and 
particularly in school-government. The young study 
character very speedily and very accurately. Perhaps 
no one pupil could express in words an exact estimate 
of a teacher's character after a week's acquaintance ; 
but yet the whole school has received an impression 
which is not far from the truth. A teacher, then, is 
very unwise who attempts to assume to bo anything 
which he is not. He should ever be frank ; and in 
commencing a school he should begin as he can hold 
out. Any assumption of an authoritative tone is espec- 



IM THEORY AJTD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Respect precedes attacliment.— Tlie rough and tlie gentle way. 

ially ill-judged. The pupils at once put themselves in 
an attitude of resistance when this is perceived by them. 
A teacher should ever remember that among children 
— however it may be among adults — respect always pre- 
cedes attacliment. If he would gain the love of the 
children, he must first be worthy of their respect. He 
should therefore act deliberately, and always conscien- 
tiously. He should be firm but never petulant. It is 
very important at the outset that he should be truly 
courteous and affable. It is much wiser to request than 
to command, at least until the request has been disre- 
garded. There are usually two ways of doing a thing, 
— a gentle and a rough way. ^'^John, go and shut that 
door,^^ in a gruff tone, is one way to have a door closed. 
John will undoubtedly go and shut the door — perhaps 
with a slam, — but he will not thank the teacher for the 
rough tones used in commanding it. Now it costs no 
more time or breath to say, '^ John, 1^11 thank you if 
you will shut that door.^' Most cheerfully will John 
comply with the request, and he is grateful that he has 
heard these tones of kindness. If he could but know 
the teacher^s wishes afterward, he would gladly perform 
them unasked. I would by no means recommend the 
adoption of the fawning tone of the sycophant by the 
teacher. He should be meanly and dignified ; but the 
language of that courtesy which springs from real kin(i- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 195 



Avoid tlie suspicious spirit.— A bad boy saved. 



ness, and which ever becomes the gentleman is always 
the most suitable as well as most expedient for him. 

II. Avoid exhibiting or entertaining a sus- 
picious SPIRIT. — It is a maxim of law, that one charged 
with crime is always to be presumed innocent until 
proved guilty. This should be a maxim with the 
teacher who would govern well. There is no more 
direct way of making a school vicious, tlian by showing 
them that you suspect they are so. A good reputation 
is dear to all ; and even a bad boy will be restrained 
from wicked acts as long as he thinks you give him 
credit for good intentions. But if he finds that he has 
lost your good opinion, he feels that he has nothing 
further to lose by being as bad as you suspect him to 
be. A teacher is wise, therefore, if he tries to see 
something good even in a vicious pupil. It may be, as 
it often has been, the means of saving such a pupil. I 
have known a very depraved boy entirely reformed in 
school, by his teacher's letting him know that he had 
noticed some good traits in his character. He after- 
wards told his teacher that ^^he had been so often 
suspected to be a villain, that he had almost come to 
the conclusion that he would be one ; but that, when 
he found one man who could do him the justice to give 
him credit for a few good feelings — (for he knew he 
had them) — he at once determined to show that man 



1^6 THEOHY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHlK(? 

Token of confidence.— Employment. 

that his confidence had not been misplaced ; and that 
he would sooner die than knowingly offend the only 
person who ever had understood him." 

It is wise sometimes, not only to withhold the ex- 
pression of suspicion, but to give some token of your 
confidence to the pupil who is troublesome. Intrust 
him with some errand involving responsibility, or assign 
to him some duty by way of assistance to yourself, and 
very likely you will gain his good-will ever after. This 
is founded upon the well-known principle in human 
nature acted upon by Dr. Franklin, who, when he 
would gain his enemy, asked him to do him a favor, 

III. As SOON AS POSSIBLE GIVE REGULAR AND FULL 

EMPLOYMENT. — It is an old proverb that '* Idleness is 
the mother of mischief". The nursery hymn also con- 
tains a living truth — 

" And Satan finds some mischief still 
For idle bands to do." 

It is the law of a child's nature to be active ; and as 
the teacher is placed in the school to give direction to 
such minds, he can hardly complain of their going 
upon forbidden objects unless he seasonably provides 
something better for them to do. 

Very early, then, the teacher should endeavor to 
classify his school and furnish constant and full em- 
ployment — either of study, recitation, or relaxation — 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 197 



Tlie teaxilier may euforce employment.— Few rules. 



for every hour in the day. The teacher shoiikl have a 
plan when he opens the school, and the sooner it is 
carried into full operation the better.* Besides, when 
a teacher has given employment, he has a right to insist 
upon the pupil's being engaged in study. Nobody will 
question this right; and it is far more profitable to 
require a positive duty than to enjoin a negative, — 
such as abstinence from whispering or from mischief in 
general. 

IV. Make but few rules. — It is a very common 
thing for teachers to embarrass themselves by a long 
code of requirements and prohibitions. Some go so 
far as to write out a system of laws, and, annexing to 
each the penalty for its infringement, post them up in a 
conspicuous place in the schoolroom. Others content 
themselves with a verbal announcement of them, and 
rely upon the memories of the pupils to retain the de- 
tails of them and to govern themselves accordingly. 
This, it seems to me, is a great mistake. The multi- 
plicity of specific rules for the government of a school, 
will naturally lead to a multiplicity of offences. Chil- 
dren will be confused by the varying and sometimes 
conflicting demand of a formidable code of regulations, 
and in endeavoring to avoid Scylla will be likely to fall 
into Charybdis. Is is believed by some honest states- 
» See Chap. x. ol this work, 



198 THEOKY AND PBACTICE OF TEACHING 

Tlie world lias Ijeen governed too mucli.— Do rigM. 

men that ^' the world has been governed too much ; " 
and it is often alleged in support of this belief that 
successful compliance with the laws requires far more 
wisdom than was displayed in making them ; that is, 
the science of ohedience is far more abstruse than the 
science of legislation! AVhether this be true in the 
civil world or not I shall not attempt to decide ; I will 
only say that such has too often been the fact in the 
schoolroom. 

It is in my oj)inion the part of wisdom, and I think 
also the teaching of experience, that it is best to make 
but few. rules. The great rule of duty, quoted once 
before, "Do unto others as you would that they should 
do to you," comprises quite enough to begin with. 
The direction — Do right, is a very comprehensive one. 
There is in children an ability to distinguish between 
right and wrong, upon which the teacher may ever 
rely ; and by insisting upon this as the standard, he 
daily brings into exercise the conscience of the child, 
who is called upon to decide. Is this right ? Besides, 
if a school is to be governed by a code of laws, the 
pupils will act upon the principle that ivhatever is not 
proscribed is admissihle. Consequently without in- 
quiring whether an act is right, their only inquiry will 
be. Is it forbidden ? Now no teacher was ever yet so 
)vise as to make laws for every case j the consequence 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 199 

Embarrassmeut in executing laws.— No discretion. 

is, he is daily perplexed with unforeseen troubles, or 
with some ingenious evasions of his inflexible code. In 
all this matter the worst feature is the fact that the 
child judges of his acts by the law of the teacher rather 
than by the law of his conscience, and is thus in danger 
of perverting and blunting the moral sense. 

To this it may be added that the teacher will often 
find himself very much perplexed in attempting to 
judge the acts of his jiupils by fixed laws, and in award- 
ing to all violations of them a prescribed penalty. 
Cases will frequently occur in which two scholars will 
offend against a given prohibition, with altogether dif- 
ferent intentions, — the one having a good motive and 
forgetting the law ; the otlier with the law in his mind 
and having a wicked design to violate it. Now the 
written code with its prescribed penalty allows the 
teacher no discretion. He must maintain his law and 
punish both offenders, and thus violate his own sense 
of justice ; or he must pass both by, and thus violate 
his word. He cannot excuse the one and pnnish the 
other, as justice would evidently demand, without set- 
ting at naught his own laws. 

An example Avill illustrate this point. A teacher has 
made a rule that ^^any child who whispers without 
leave shall hQ feruled.'^ ]^ow two little boys sit side by 
side. William is an amiable, obedient, and diligent 



200 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Illustration.— A rtllemma. 

little boy, who has never violated intentionally any wish 
of his teacher ; while Charles is a sour-tempered, 
vicious, unprincipled fellow, who a dozen times within 
a week has sought to make his teacher trouble. Little 
John, who sits near to William, drops his pencil, and it 
falls under William's desk. John looks for his pencil 
on the right and left of his seat, grows anxious and 
perplexed. William has noticed him, and he carefully 
picks up the pencil, while he perhaps is looking for it 
in another direction, — and with the kind intention of 
relieving Ins neighbor's anxiety and restoring his prop- 
erty, he touches his elbow, and softly whispers, '^^Here 
is your pencil, John,'' — then immediately resumes his 
own studies, and is probably entirely unconscious that 
he has violated any law. At the same instant the art- 
ful Charles, half concealing his face with his hand, 
with his wary eye turned to the teacher, wilfully 
addresses another pupil on some point in no way con- 
nected with study or duty. The teacher sees both 
these cases, and calls the offenders to his desk. The 
one trembles, and wonders what he has done amiss, 
while the other perhaps prepares himself to deny his 
offence, and thus to add falsehood to his other sins. 
The rtile awards to both the ferule. It is applied to 
Charles with energy, and with the conviction that he 
deserves it ; but I ask, can a man with any sense of 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 201 



Hint for young teachers.— Tlireatening. 



justice raise his hand to punish William ? If so, I see 
not how he can ever again hold converse with his own 
conscience. Yet the rule allows him no discretion. He 
must violate either the rule or his conscience ; and too 
often in such cases he chooses the latter alternative. 

Now my advice is, malce hut feto rules, and never 
multiply them till circumstances demand it. The rule 
of right will usually be sufficient without any special 
legislation ; and it has this advantage, that it leaves the 
teacher the largest discretion. 

I have been thus full on this point, because so many 
fail here, and especially young teachers. It has cost 
many a young teacher much bitter experience to make 
this discovery for himself ; and I have desired to save 
others who may hereafter engage in teaching, the pain 
and perplexity which they may so easily and so safely 
avoid. 

For similar reasons I should also urge that the 
teacher should avoid the too common practice of threat- 
ening in his school. Threatening is usually resorted to 
as a means of frightening children into their duty,^ 
and, too often, threats are made without any expecta- 
tion of a speedy necessity either to execute or disregard 
them. The consequence is, they are usually more ex- 
travagant than the reality, and the teacher's word soon 
passes at a discount j his threats are viewed as very 



202 THEORY ANJJ PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Wake up mind.— Varieties in school. 

much like the barking of a dog \yhich has no intention 
to bite. As threatening is moreover the language of 
impatience, it almost always leads to a loss of respect. 

V. Wake up mikd iis- the school, axd in the dis- 
trict. — There is usually but very little trouble in 
government where the scholars are deeply engaged in 
their studies or school exercises, and especially if at the 
same time the feelings of the parents are enlisted. To 
this end I would recommend that early attention should 
be given to some efforts to ivahe up mind, such as have 
been described in a former section of this work. It 
will be found, when skilfully conducted, one of the 
most successful instrumentalities in aid of good order 
and good feeling in the school. 

An ingenious teacher, too, may introduce other 
varieties into the school exercises, and thus sometimes 
turn the attention of discontented pupils from some 
evil design to give him trouble. So long as the teacher 
keeps steadily the main object of his school in view, 
namely, progress in the studies, he is excusable if occa- 
sionally, to break up monotony and excite a deeper 
interest, he introduces a well-considered new plan of 
study or of recitation. Indeed, much of his success 
will depend upon his power to do this, and in nothing 
will its advantages appear mo're obviously than in the 
government of the school. A great portion of the di?- 



SCHOOL GOVEllNMENT 203 

Vocal music— German proverb. 

order and insubordination in our schools has its origin 
m a want of interest in the school exercises. He is the 
successful teacher and the successful disciplinarian who 
can excite and maintain the necessary interest. 

As one of these varieties, I may mention the exercise 
of vocal music in school. I have already alluded to it. 
As a means of keeping alive the interest in a school, it 
is very important. Music is the language of the heart, 
and though capable of being grossly perverted — (and 
what gift of God is not ?) — its natural tendency is to 
elevate the affections, to soothe the passions, and to 
refine the taste. 

'^The Germans have a proverb,'^ says Bishop Potter, 
^Svhicli has come down from the days of Luther, that 
where music is not, the devil enters. As David took 
his harp, when he would cause the evil spirit to depart 
from Saul, so the Germans employ it to expel tlie 
obduracy from the hearts of the depraved. In their 
schools for the reformation of juvenile offenders, (and 
the same remark might be applied to those of our own 
country,) music has been found one of the most effect- 
ual means of inducing docility among the stubborn and 
vicious. It would seem that so long as any remains of 
humanity linger in the heart, it retains its susceptibility 
to music. And as proof that music is more powerful 
for good than for evil, is it not worthy of profound con- 



204 THEOKY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHIiq'G 

Easily Introcluced iu scliools.— Visit pareDts. 

sideration that in all the intimations which the Bible 
gives lis of a future world music is associated only 
with the employments and happiness of Heaven ?" 

Almost any teacher can introduce music into his 
school ; because if he cannot sing, he will always find 
that it will only require a little encouragement to induce 
the scholars to undertake to conduct it themselves. It 
will consume but very little time, and it is always that 
time which, if not employed in singing, would other- 
wise be unemployed or misemployed. It is the united 
testimony of all who have judiciously introduced sing- 
ing into their schools, that it is among the best instru- 
mentalities for the promotion of good feeling and good 
order. 

VI. Visit the parekts of your scholars. — I shall 
more particularly enjoin this, when I speak of the 
teacliefs relation to Ids patrons [chap, xi.], but I 
cannot forbear in this place to urge it upon the teacher 
as one of the means of securing good order in school. 
A great deal of the insubordination in our schools 
arises from some misunderstanding, or some dislike 
entertained by the parent towards the teacher, and 
spoken of in presence of the children. AYhatever the 
pupils hear at home they will be likely to exemplify in 
school. It should be the teacher's first object to become 
acquainted with the parent, and to let him understand. 



School goverkmekt 205 

Keasons why.— Registers of credits.— Why credits. 

by a personal interview, all his plans and aims for the 
improvement of the school. This can be done best at 
the parent^'s own fireside. It has often happened that 
by a friendly visit of an hour by the teacher the 
parent's heart has been softened, his prejudices re- 
moved, his co-operation gained, and the cheerful and 
cordial obedience of his children in school secured. 

These visits should of course be made in the true 
spirit of the teacher. They should be made in the 
honest desire of his heart to render his labors more 
successful. A visit made in such a spirit seldom fails 
to make the parents personal friends ever after ; and 
of course in case of a collision afterwards between him 
and their children, this is a very important j)oint. 

VII. Eegisters of Credits. — Registers of the stand- 
ing of pupils in their schools and their classes are very 
highly recommended by some whose experience is en- 
titled to confidence. I am inclined to place this among 
the means of securing good order. I would recommend, 
however, that they should be registers of credits only. 
Some recommend the use of " Hack rnarks " , that is, 
the record of prominent faults and perhaps of punish- 
ments. My own experience teaches me that this is 
unwise. The teacher should not shoAV a willingness to 
record and publish the faults of a pupil. He should, 
on the contrary, show a tender regard for his reputation. 



206 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Government not tlie business of the teacher.— Mr. Howard's remark. 

Besides, the child is less likely to be mindful of his duty 
when his reputation is already Machened by his teacher. 
If registers are to be kept at all, they should record 
the successes and virtues of the child rather than his 
failures and faults. And if, at the end of a week or a 
month, he is furnished with an abstract for the inspec- 
tion of his parents, let it be so much of good*character 
as he has earned for himself during the specified time. 

I confess I am less sanguine than many others as to 
the utility of the register, as an incentive either to 
obedience or to diligence ; but if used at all, I think the 
above restriction is highly important. 

VIII. Avoid goyeri^ing too much. — By this I 
would be understood to urge upon the teacher the fact 
that his main business in school is instruction and not 
government. Government is a means and not the end 
of school-keeping. A very judicious and practical 
teacher — Mr. R. S. Howard — has well remarked: '^^The 
real object to be accomplished, the real end to be ob- 
tained in school, is to assist the pupil in acquiring 
knowledge, — to educate the mind and heart. To effect 
this, good order is very necessary. But when order is 
made to take the place of industry, and discipline the 
place of instruction, where the time of both teacher 
and pupils is mostly spent in watching each other, very 
little good will be accomplished. '' 



SCHOOL GOVEllNMEN'T M 

An official visit.—'' Order, there !"— A scene. 

It is a mistake that many teachers fall into, that they 
seem to regard government as their chief occupation ; 
and, as we should naturally expect in such cases, it is 
often very poorly exercised. That is not the best gov- 
ernment which is maintained as a matter of formal 
business. The noiseless under-current is far more 
efficient. I have always noticed that men govern best 
ivlieii they do not seem to govern ; and those who make 
most effort and bustle about it themselves are pretty 
sure to have the most boisterous schools. 

I once in company with a friend officially visited a 
school where the teacher, a man of strong frame — six 
feet high, and with hmgs in proportion, was laboring 
to keep order. Every word he uttered was in a stento- 
rian voice which would have been painful to the pupils 
in a quiet room ; hence, they took care to keep up a 
constant clattering of books, slates, and rulers, mingled 
with the constant hum of their own voices, as if for self- 
defence. It seemed to be a mighty effort of each party 
to rise if possible above the noise of the other. '^ Silence ! 
Order ! I say,"*' was constantly ejaculated in a voice that 
was almost sufficient, as Shakespeare^s Hamlet would 
say, to '^^ split the ears of the groundlings." 

One of the most ludicrous scenes I ever witnessed 
occurred in this school during an exercise in English 
grammar. The class occupied the back seats, while 



208 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Parsing !— A dialogue. 

the teacher stood by the desk in front of the school. 
The children between the teacher and his class were 
variously employed, — some manufacturing paper fly- 
boxes, some whittling the benches — (it was in New 
England) ; some were trying their skill at a spit-ball 
warfare ; others were making voyages of exploration 
beneath the seats. The school^ consisting of some 
seventy pupils, were as busy as the occupants of an ant- 
hill. The sentence to be parsed was, ^^A good boy 
loves study. ''^ No written description can present the 
scene as it was acted in real life. 

It should be borne in mind that every word spoken 
by the teacher, whether to the class or to the school, 
was in a tone of voice which might have been heard at 
least an eighth of a mile, and that every exclamation 
was accompanied by several energetic thumps of a large 
oaken "rule'' upon the lid of his desk. The language 
of the teacher is in italics. " Mary, parse A.'' '^ A is 
an indefinite " — " Silence I Order there I " — " article, 
and is prefixed to V — " John !'' — "No sir, it is prefixed 
to" — '^ Martha, Martha! sit up" — '^^it is prefixed to — 
boy." — ''Right. — Good, next.'' — ''Good is an ad- 
jective," — "Order, Order, Order!" — thump, thump, 
thump ! — " Go on, go on, Ihearyou !" — thump, thump ! 
— "and belongs to" — " Speah louder! Sit up there ! 
What are yoic doing? And belongs tof" — ''boy." — 



SCHOOL GOVERNMEN-T 209 



"The Rule, sir."— A Babel.— Who made it :- 



''The Rule. The Eule ! Isay."—RQYQ several chil- 
dren looked earnestly at the piece of timber he held in 
his \\ii\\&.—" The Rule, sir, the Rule ! ''—i\\\\m\^, 
thump !—'^ You've got it in your hand/" vociferated a 
little harmless-looking fellow on the front seat, while 
the scholar proceeded to recite the rule. — '' Adjectives 
h^longio"—'' Lazy, lazy fellow ! sit uj) there."— IIqvq 
the class smiled, and the scholar completed his rule, 
asserting however that ''adjectives belong to nouns/' 
and not to '' lazy fello2vs", as the class seemed to under- 
stand the master to teach. Word after word was parsed 
in this way, (a way of teaching our language, which, if 
we could know it had been practised at the erection of 
Babel, would sufficiently account for that memorable 
confusion of tongues without the intervention of a 
miracle,) till the teacher, nearly exhausted by this 
strange combination of mental, oral, and manual lahor, 
very much to the relief of all, vociferated, " That'll do I " 
and the scene was changfed. 

At the close of the afternoon we were told that 'Mt 
was a very hard school, that it was almost impossible 
to keep order, and that he should be discouraged were 
it not that he saw a manifest improvement within a few 
days past ! " 

Now this teacher made the school what it was, by his 
own manner. He would have done the same in any 



210 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Another visit.— A new teaclier.— Good order. 

school. He taught in the most effectual way the science 
and art of confusion ; and notwithstanding the hard 
name he gave his school^ he was emphatically the most 
disorderly and noisy member of it. 

There was a change. On another day, accompanied 
by the same friend, we presented ourselves at the door 
of this same room for admittance. We heard no sound 
as we approached the entrance, and almost began to 
suspect we should find there was no school within. 
We knocked ; and presently, without our hearing the 
footstep of the person who approached, the door opened, 
and v/e passed in. The children looked up a moment 
as we entered, and then bent their eyes upon their 
lessons. The teacher softly handed us seats, and then 
proceeded with the recitation. His manner was quiet 
and deliberate, and the school was orderly and busy. 
He had no rule in his hand, no heavy boots on his feet, 
(he had exchanged them for slippers on entering the 
school,) and no other means of giving emphasis to his 
words. He kindly requested, — never commanded, — and 
everything seemed to present the strongest contrast 
with the former scene. The hour of dismission arrived 
and the scholars quietly laid by their books, and as 
quietly walked out of the house, and all was still. 

'*^ How have you secured this good order ? ''^ said we 
to the teacher. '^I really do not know/' said he with 



SCIiOOL GOVflliNMEKf ^it 



Tlie secret.— Excessive silence. 



a smile, ''I lijive said nothing about order." ''But 
have you had no difficulty with noisy scholars'' ? ''A 
little at first ; but in a day or two they seemed to be- 
come quiet, and we have not been troubled since/' 

IN'ow the seci-et was that this latter teacher had learned 
to govern himself. His own m.anner gave character to 
the school. So it w^ill ever be. A man will govern 
more by his manner than in any other way. 

There is, too, such a thing as keeping a school too 
still by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, 
by keeping up a constant constraint both in himself and 
pupils, force a deathlike silence upon his school. You 
may hear a pin drop at any time, and the figure of 
every child is as if moulded in cast iron. But, be it 
remembered, this is the stillness of constraint, not the 
stillness of activity. It is an unhealthy state both of 
body and mind, and when attained by the most vigilant 
care of the teachei", is a condition scarcely to be desired. 
There should be silence in school, a serene and soothing 
quiet ; but it should if possible be the quiet of cheer- 
fulness and agreeable devotion to study, rather than the 
''palsy of fear". 



Thus far I have confined myself to those qualifica- 
tions in the teacher, and to those means which, under 
ordinary circumstances and in most districts, would in 



21:3 TMEdRY AKD PliACTIcK OF TEAClIiNG 

Recapitulation.— Force sometimes needful.— Punisliment deli :iea. 

my opinion secure good order in our schools. AVitli 
the qualifications I have described in the mentid and 
moral condition of the teacher, and the means and sug- 
gestions above detailed — combined, I believe a very 
large majority of our schools could be most successfully 
governed without any ajopeal io feai' or force. 

But as some schools are yet in a very bad state, re- 
quiring more than ordinary talents and skill to control 
them ; and as very many of those who must teach for a 
long time to come have not and cannot be expected to 
have all the qualifications described, and much less the 
moral power insisted on, it is unreasonable to expect, 
taking human nature as it is, and our teachers as they 
are, that all can govern their schools without some 
appeals to the lower motives of children, and some 
resort to coercion as an instrumentality. I should 
leave this discussion very incomplete, therefore, were 
I not to present my views upon the subject of 

SECTION III — PUNISHMENTS. 

As a great deal has been written and spoken upon 
the subject of school punishments, I deem it important 
that the term, as I intend to use it, should be defined 
at the outset. I submit the following definition : 

Punishment is pain inflicted upon the mind or 
body of an individual by the authority to which 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 213 



Commentsonclenaltlon.—Wlience authority is derived. 

HE IS SUBJECT ; WITH A VIEW EITHER TO REFORM HIM, 
OR TO DETER OTHERS FROM THE COMMISSION OF OF- 
FENCES, OR BOTH. 

It is deemed essential to the idea of punishment that 
the inflictor have legitimate authority over the subject 
of it, — otherwise the act is an act of usurpation. It is 
also essential that the inflictor should have a legitimate 
object in view, such as the reformation of the individual 
or of the community in which his example has exerted 
an influence, — otherwise the act becomes an abuse of 
power. Infliction for the purpose of retaliation for an 
insult or injury is not punishment; it is revenge. 
Whenever, therefore, a teacher resorts to such infliction 
to gratify his temper, or io pay off, as it is expressed in 
common language, the bad conduct of a pupil, without 
any regard to his reformation or the prevention of 
similar offences in the school, the pain he inflicts is not 
punishment ; it is cruelty. Very great importance is 
to be attached to the' motive in this matter ; because 
the same infliction upon the same individual and for 
the same offence, either may be just and proper pun- 
ishment, or it may be the most unjustifiable and re- 
vengeful abuse, according to the motive of the inflictor. 

The autliority to inflict punishment in general is 
either by the constitution of God or of civil society. 
'' The punishment of the faults and offences of children 



214 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Dr. Webster.— A common error.— The rioht assumed. 

by the parent/' says Dr. Webster, " is by virtue of the 
light of government with which the parent is invested 
by God himself." The right to punish the offences of 
children while at school, is by the common law vested 
in the teacher, as tlie representative of the parent for 
the time being. It is the declaration of this law as in- 
terpreted from time immemorial, that the teacher is in 
loco pai^entis — in place of the parent. 

Some have alleged that fear and shame, the two 
principles addressed by punishment, are among the 
lowest in our nature ; and have hence endeavored to 
show that punishment is always inexpedient, if not in- 
deed always wrong. To this I answer that both fear 
and shame are incorporated in our nature by God him- 
self ; and hence I infer they are there for a wise pur- 
pose. I find, moreover, that God himself, in his word 
and in his providence, does appeal to both of these 
principles ; and hence I infer that punishment in the 
abstract is not wrong, and after the higher motives 
have been addressed not altogether inexpedient. 

Living in a community as we do where the rigid of 
punishment in general is assumed by our government, 
and the right of teachers to punish is conceded by our 
laws, I do not feel called upon to establish the right by 
argument ; I shall assume that the teacher has the right 
to jmnish in the sense in whicli I have defined punish- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 215 

Plan of discussion.— Two classes. 

ment, — and shall therofore 2:)roceed to consider the 
various kinds of punishments used in our schools, and 
to distinguish those which are justifiable from those 
which are not ; and also to consider some of the con- 
ditions and limitations of their use. 

In preparing the way to do this, I may remark that 
punishments consist of two classes : 1. Those which 
address themselves directly to the mind ; as privation 
from privileges, loss of liberty, degradation, some act 
of humiliation, reproof, and the like. 2. Those which 
address the mind through the body ; as the imposition 
of a task — labor, for instance, — requiring the pupil to 
take some painful attitude, inflicting bodily chastise- 
ment, etc. 

I have mentioned these two classes for the purpose of 
calling attention to the fact that there are those v/ho 
approve of the first class, and at the same time denounce 
the second, scouting the idea of reaching the mind 
through the senses of the body. This seems to me, 
however, to indicate a want of attention to the laws of 
our being ; for in the economy of nature we are made 
at every point sensitive to pain as a means of guarding 
against injury. Why has the Creator studded the en- 
tire surface of our bodies with the extremities of nerves 
whose function is to carry to the brain with lightning 
speed the intelligence of the approach of danger ? And 



21G THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

Mind may be reached tlirough the body.— Improper punishments. 

Avhy should this intelligence be transmitted, if its object 
is not to influence the will, either to withdraw the suf- 
fering part from immediate danger, or to avoid those 
objects which cause the pain ? The mind, then, by the 
economy of nature, or rather by the arrangement of 
God, is capable of being influenced through the bodily 
sensations ; and those who deny this, either do not ob- 
serve attentively, or, observing, do not reason fairly as 
to the laws of our being. With these preliminary 
observations, I now proceed to consider 

I. Improper Punishments. — Some punishments are 
always wrong, or at least always inexpedient. The 
infliction of them either implies a wrong feeling on the 
part of the teacher, or it promises no Avholesome result 
on the ])art of the pupil. I shall mention in detail, 
1. Those that from their nature excite the feeling in 
the j)uinl that an indignity has heen committed against 
his jJerson. No man is ready to forgive another for 
twinging his nose. There is almost a universal senti- 
ment that this organ is specially exempted from such 
insult. Kearly the same feeling exists as to pinching 
or 2JuUi?ig the ear, or tivisti^ig the hair, or snapping 
the forehead. Each child feels that these parts of his 
person are not to be trifled with, and the feeling is 
natural and proper. Now, though it is not common for 
teachers to wring the noses of their pupils, it is very 



SCHOOL GOVERNMESTT 317 

Head to be exempted from infliction, 
common for them to do each of the other thinors 

o 

enumerated. I have often seen such punishments, but 
I think I never saw any good come of them. The pupil 
always looked as if the teacher had done despite toward 
his person. Whenever I have seen the teacher twist 
the locks of a child^s hair about his finger till the tears 
would start in the eye, I have supposed the feelings 
called forth were anything but desirable, — anything but 
favorable to reformation. A pupil must love his 
teacher very strongly to be able to keep his temper 
from rising under such circumstances ; and there is 
great doubt whether either of these punishments does 
anything to secure cheerful obedience in the child one 
time in a hundred ; probably in ninety-nine cases in the 
hundred the evil passions are very much strengthened 
by them. Besides, these are undignified modes of pun- 
ishment. They savor so much of a weak and childish 
impatience that the pupils find it hard to respect a 
man, much more to love him, who will stoop to so S7iiall 
a way of giving vent to his angry feelings. Snapping 
the forehead is subject to strong physiological objec- 
tions ; and, as a general rule, the head and its appurten- 
ances should be exempted from penal violence. 

In this place I may very properly allude to another 
mode of assailing the ears of children, quite as undig- 
nified in itself and quite as unprofitable in its results as 



218 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Scolding.— Poor investment. 

pulling them, — and until they lire hardened to it by 
familiarity, probably more painful. I refer, I need not 
say, to scolding. This is a punishment altogether too 
common. There is a physiological law that the exercise 
of any organ will give it greater strength and generally 
greater celerity. From this fact, and the additional 
one that the more a child is scolded the harder his heart 
becomes, so that here, as in the Eule of Three, '' more 
requires more," — it follows that those who once be- 
gin to scold, are fortunate if they stop short of high 
attainments in the art. 

There is no enterprise in which the investment yields 
so small a profit as in the business of scolding. It is really 
pitiable to witness the teacher given to this practice, mak- 
ing himself and all around him unhappy, without the 
hope of alleviation. The command of the tongue is a 
great virtue in a teacher ; and it is to be feared that 
very many children still suffer in their moral feelings* 
as well as their ears, because so many teachers do not sea- 
sonably learn the right control of the ''unruly member''. 

While upon this subject I may allude to another very 
objectionable mode of address practised by some 

* A blacksmith, it is said, wlio had been accustomed to scold his family 
quite too freely, was one day attempting to harden a piece of steel ; hut 
failing after two or three attempts, his little son, who had been an observer 
of this as well as other operations of his father, is said to have exclaimed : 
" Scoia it, fatlm\ scold it. If tliat woiVt harden it, nothing else vnll. " 



SCHOOL GOVERKMENT 219 

Cockney blackguardism.— Examples.— Beg pardon.— Goldsmith. 

teachers toward their schools. I refer to a mixture of 
scolding with a species of low wit or cockney black- 
guardism^ that should ever be banished from the school- 
room. Such expressions as ^'Sit down^ John, or Til 
shiver your toj)-timber,^/'~'' Attend to your studies, or 
some of you will be a head sJiorter/' — ''Keep quiet, or 
you'll hear thunder," — and the like. To these I might 
add those empty and debasing threats which are too 
often and too thoughtlessly uttered ; as, ''1^11 skin you 
alive,"" or ''Til shake you to pieces," or 'Til use you 
up," — with others of the same character. I perhaps 
ought to beg pardon for placing these vulgarisms before 
the general reader ; but they are so frequently employed 
in our schools, in some of our schools of good repute 
too, that I thought it to be my duty to quote them, (for 
they are all literal quotations,) in order if possible to 
aid those who have fallen into such a low habit to see 
themselves as others see them. 

It is so very easy for a teacher to raise a laugh among 
his pupils that he is in danger of being seduced into 
the use of coarse and quaint expressions by the suppo- 
sition that they are witty. But the mirtli of school- 
boys is not a more reliable criterion of wit in the modern 
teacher .than it was in the case of the schoolmaster de- 
scribed by Goldsmith ; and possibly the exercise of a 
little discernment on his part would convince him that 



220 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Prolonged tortures. 

children sometimes laugh, as they did of old, because 
they think it prudent to do so. 

"■ A mau severe lie was and stern to view, 
I knew liim Avell, and every truant knew ; 
Well had tlie boding- tremblers learned to trace 
Tbe day's disasters in liis morning face ; 
Full well tbey laughed, vsitU coimterfeitea glee, 
At all Jiisjolces, for many a joke bad be." 

It is unquestionably true that there are schools and 
many such, now of high standing, the language of whose 
teachers, could it be noted down and printed for the 
parents, would perfectly astonish tliem ; and such is 
the force of habit, it would very likely astonish the 
teachers themselves. Let all who mean to respect 
themselves, or who desire to be long respected by 
others, most carefully avoid the first approach to the 
use of sucli kinds of language. Its influence in school 
is '^^oiily evil, and that continually.^'' 

2. 77ioso p?iuish}ie?ifs that from their nature imply 
in the inflictor a love of inolonged torture. These are 
quite numerous and are resorted to often for the pur- 
pose of avoiding what is usually deemed severe punish- 
ment. Some of them also have very serious physiological 
objections. As an instance, I may mention the holding 
of a weight at arm's length until the muscles of the arm 
become painful from over-exertion and fatigue. Some- 
times the Bible, being the largest book at hand, is 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 221 



The Biljle at arm's lengtli.— Physiological effects.— Moral effects. 



chosen as the weight ; and thus that book which should 
have no associations connected with it in the minds of 
the young hut those of reverence and love, is made the 
instrument of torture — the minister of cruelty ! 

Imagine that you see — what I have seen — an offend- 
ing boy called to the teacher's desk, and, after words 
of reproach, sentenced to hold the large Bible at arm's 
length for a specified time, or until the teacher is will- 
ing to release him. At first it is raised with a smile of 
triumph, almost a smile of contempt. Soon the 
muscles thus exerted at disadvantage begin to be vreary 
and to relax. ''Hold it up!" exclaims the vigilant 
teacher ; and it is again brought to its position. Sooner 
than before the muscles are fatigued, and they almost 
refuse to obey the mandate of the will, which itself is 
half willing to rebel against authority so unreasonable. 
''Up with it ! -" — again brings it to its place, or perhaps 
a stroke of the rattan repeats the command with more 
nrgency. At this moment every nerve sympathizes, 
and the muscles are urged on to their greatest effort. 
The limb is in agony, — and what agony can surpass 
that of an overstrained muscle ? — and the whole system 
reels and writhes with suffering. ]\"ow look into that 
child's face and tell me what is the moral effect of this 
sort of punishment ? Unless he is one of the most 
amiable of tlie sons of Adam, he inwardly curses the 



22i THEOKY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING? 

Hold a nail !— Sitting on nothing. 

cruelty that he thinks is delighted with pangs like these, 
protracted yet intolerable. He almost curses the blessed 
book which was given to warm his soul into life and 
immortality. He cries with pain, but not with penitence. 
He may submit, indeed, and he may abstain from sim- 
ilar offences in time to come ; but it is the submission 
of self-preservation, and the abstinence of an eye-ser- 
vant, — while the stain that has thus been inwrought in 
his moral sensibilities may long remain unexpunged. 
Such a punishment T unhesitatingly pronounce to be 
improper, whatever may be the circumstances. 

Akin to this are those other contrivances to give pro- 
longed pain which in different parts of the country 
have taken a variety of forms, and as great a variety of 
names. One of these has been termed "lioldbig a nail 
into the floor J' It consists in requiring the pupil to 
bend forward, — and, placing the end of a single finger 
upon the head of a nail, to remain in that position till 
the whole system is agonized. Another has by some of] 
its inflictors been termed '^sitting on nothing"', Thej 
pupil is required to place his back against a wall of the' 
room, and his feet perhaps a foot from its base, and; 
then to slide his body down till the knees are bent ati 
right angles, and his person is in a sitting posture with- 
out a seat ! The muscles, acting over the knee at thai 
greatest disadvantage, are now made to support thej 



aCIIOOL GOVERNMENT 223 

On worse than notliing.— Ridicule. 

body in that position during the pleasure of the teacher. 
I have seen another mode of punishment practised, and 
as I have heard no name for it I shall give it the cog- 
nomen of ^'^ sitting on 2vorse than nothing/^ The boy 
in this case was required to sit upon the floor, and then, 
placing the feet upon a bench or chair, to support the 
body in an erect position by reversed action of the 
muscles ! 

But I gladly turn away from a description of the 
punishments I have witnessed in the common schools 
of New England within a quarter of a century, ex- 
hibiting as they do so many characteristics of the dark 
ages. Some of these I have witnessed quite recently ; 
and to what extent any or all of them are now in use, I 
am unable to say. I only desire to say, that they are 
all improper, — debasing to the morals of the pupils, 
and degrading to the profession of the teacher ; and 
the sooner such punishments are entirely banished from 
our school-rooms, the sooner will the profession of the 
teacher rise to its proper level. 

3. Ridicule. This is a weapon that should not be 
wielded as a school-punishment. It often cuts deeper 
than he who uses it imagines ; and it usually gives most 
pain where it is least merited. Some pliysical defect, 
or some mental incapacity, or eccentricit}^ is most fre- 
quently made the subject of it ; and yet nothing can be 



224: TIIEOliY AKJ> PRACTICE OF TEACHI^a 

Why objectlonaWe.— Loss of love— of cor.flclence. 

more unfeeling or more unjust than its use in such 
cases. If the designed failings of the indolent, or the 
premeditated mischief of the vicious, could be subjected 
to its influence, its use would be more allowable, — but 
even then it would be questionable. But the indolent 
and vicious are usually unaffected by ridicule. They 
sin upon calculation, and not without counting the 
cost ; and they are therefore very willing to risk their 
reputation where they have so little to lose. It is the 
modest, the conscientious, the well-meaning child, that 
is most affected by ridicule ; yet it is such a one that, 
for various reasons, is oftenest made the subject of it, 
though above all others his feelings should be most ten- 
derly spared. 

A strong objection to the use of ridicule is the feeling 
which it induces between the teacher and pupil. The 
teacher, conscious that he has injured the feelings of the 
child, will find it hard to love him afterwards ; for we sel- 
dom love those whom we have injured. The child, on 
the other hand, loses confidence in his teacher ; he feels 
that his sensibilities have been outraged before his com- 
panions, and that the teacher, who should be his best 
friend in the school, has invited the heartless laugh of 
his fellow-pupils against him. With the want of love 
on the one hand, and of confidence on the other, what 
further usefulness can reasonably be expected ? 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 225 



School-mates injured.— Hiss.— Little Mary.— A scene. 

But the strongest objection of all to the use of ridicule 
is the fact that it calls forth the worst of feelings in the 
school. Those who participate in the laugh thus ex- 
cited are under the influence of no very amiable motives. 
And when this is carried so far as to invite, by direct 
words, some expression from the schoolmates, by point- 
ing the finger of shame, and perhaps accompanying the 
act by a hiss of scorn, the most deplorable spirit of 
self-righteousness is cultivated. 

Little Mary one day was detected in a wrong act by 
her teacher. " Mary, come here," said the teacher, 
sternly. Little thinking she had been seen she obeyed 
promptly, and stood by the chair of her teacher, who, 
without giving Mary time to reflect, and thus allow the 
conscience opportunity to gain the mastery, immediately 
asked, '^ What naughty thing did I see you do just 
now?" ''Nothing," said Mary, partly disposed to 
justify herself, and partly doubting whether indeed the 
teacher had seen her do anything wrong. " Oh, Mary, 
Mary, who would think you would tell me a lie ! Did 
you ever hear of Ananias and Sapphira ? " Here a 
lecture followed on the sin and danger of lying, and 
particularly the danger of sudden death by the ven- 
geance of God. Mary began to tremble, and then to 
weep, probably from terror. Now came the second 
part. '^ I should think you would be ashamed to be 



226 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Self-rigliteousness.— Defiance.— Freezing tlie affections. 

known to lie. All the children now know that you 
have lied. I should think they would feel ashamed of 
such a naughty little girl in the school. I should not 
wonder/' she continued, ^'if all the little girls and boys 
sJiould point their fingers at you and hiss.'' In an in- 
stant all the children who were not too old to be 
disgusted with the management and tone of the teacher 
pointed their fingers and uttered a long succession of 
hisses, while their faces beamed with all the complacency 
of self-righteousness, triumphing over the fall of a 
companion, who perhaps was after aTl as good and as 
truthful a child as any of them. The poor child at 
first turned her back upon them ; but soon, feeling that 
her reputation was gone, she turned, as woman ever 
will when her self-respect is blighted, with a look of 
indifference, almost a look of defiance. Fear was first 
swallowed up in shame, and shame gave place to reck- 
less audacity. The whole scene was rendered still more 
ruinous to the child from the fact that it took place in 
the presence of visitors ! 

When will our teachers learn the human heart well 
enough to be able to distinguish between a work of de- 
vastation and of true culture ; between a process of 
blighting the sensibilities, searing the conscience, 
freezing up the fountains of sympathy and of mutual 
love and confidence, — and a course of training which 



SCHOOL GOVEllKMENT ^2T 



Let teachers think.— Proper punishments.— Repoof in private. 



warms the conscience into activity, inculcates the 
reverence and love of God, instead' of a slavish fear of 
his power, and instils into the soul a desire to do right, 
rather than to do that which will avoid the reproach of 
an unfeeling multitude, more wicked than those they 
censure ? Goldsmith has shown that woman may 
''stoop to conquer''; but the above narrative shows 
how she may stoop, not to conquer, but to lay waste 
the youthful heart. 

These punishments, and such as these, which I 
have classed under the list of wij^roj^er punishments, 
should all be carefully considered by the teacher. 
They should be considered before he enters his school. 
It would be well always for him to determine before- 
hand what punishments he will not use. It may save 
him many a serious mistake. I have written what I 
have under this head in order to put teachers upon 
thought ; believing that men seldom earnestly and 
honestly inquire, without arriving at the truth in the end. 

II. Proper Punishments.— Evei-y teacher's mind 
should, if possible, be settled as to what punishments 
are proper, so that when they are inflicted, it can 
be done in good faith and with an honest conviction 
of the performance of duty. Among the proper pun- 
ishments, I may mention : 

1. Kind Reproof. This will probably be conceded 



22S THEORY AKJ> PRACTICE OF TEACHlKa 

Loss of privileges, consequent upon abuse. 

by all. I say kind reproof, because no other reproof 
can be useful. I would distinguish it from reproach. 
Reproof, judiciously administered, is one of the most 
effectual punishments that can be used. As a general 
rule this is best administered privately. The child's 
spirit of obstinacy is very likely to exhibit itself in the 
presence of his fellows ; but in private the conscience 
is free to act, and the child very readily submits. It is 
always perfectly safe to reprove privately ; that is, not 
in the presence of the school. The child has no motive 
to misrepresent the teacher ; and if the teacher so far 
spares the reputation of the pupil as to take him by 
himself, this very circumstance will often give the 
teacher access to his better feelings. 

2. Loss of Privileges, By abuse of privileges we 
forfeit them. This is a law of Providence. It is un- 
questionably proper that this should be a law of our 
schools. All those offences, therefore, against propriety 
in the exercise of any privilege may be attended with 
a temporary or permanent deprivation of such privilege. 
A pupil who is boisterous at the recess, disturbing the 
quiet of the school or impeding the enjoyment of his 
playfellows, may be deprived of the recess. A child 
who disfigures his seat with his knife may be deprived 
of his'finife', and so for any other similar offence. 
Some consider it proper to extend this punishment to 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 229 

Conflnement.— Not In a dark room. 

other classes of offences, as, for example, whispering 
or idleness. While I would not deny the right or the 
propriety of doing so, I should think it more expedient 
not thus to extend it. It is well, as far as it can be 
done, so to punish the child that he shall see that his 
conduct naturally leads to its punishment as a conse- 
quence. And it is moreover very probable that in most 
schools there will be demand enough for this punish- 
ment, in its natural application, without extending it to 
other cases. 

3. Restraint, or confinement. When liberty is 
abused a scliolar may be put under restraint. When 
duty is violated and the rights of others are wantonly 
disregarded, confinement will afl'ord time for reflection, 
and at the same time relieve others from the annoyance 
and detriment of evil example. Such restraint is often 
a wholesome discipline ; and confinement, if it be not 
too far protracted, is always safe. It should be re- 
marked, however, that confinement in a dark apart- 
ment should never be resorted to by any teacher. There 
are insuperable objections to it, growing out of the 
fears which many children early entertain of being 
alone in the dark, as also the fact that light as well as 
air is necessary to tlie vigorous action of the nervous 
system during the waking hours, especially ii> the day- 
time. It is well known that a child shut up in a dark 



230 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIN-G 

Why not ?— Humiliation.— Seldom. 

room even iii the warmth of summer speedily under- 
goes a depression of temperature ; and if the confine- 
ment is nnduly protracted, cold chills come over the 
system. For these reasons, and others, if confinement 
is ever nsed as a punishment, it should be in a room 
properly lighted and heated. Our prisoners enjoy, as 
far as may be, both of these favors. 

4. H^imiliaiion. This should be resorted to with 
great caution. When a fault has been openly committed, 
and attended with circumstances of peculiar obstinacy, 
it may sometimes very properly be required of the 
offender that he should confess the fault in a manner 
as public as its commission. This may be due to 
the school. Sometimes when an offensive act is very 
strongly marked, a confession and a request for the for- 
giveness of the teacher or the individual injured may 
be made a condition of restoration to favor. This is 
usually considered a very proper punishment. I would 
however suggest that it be used with great care, and 
never unless the circumstances imperatively demand 
it. It may be the means of cultivating the grossest 
hypocrisy, or of inducing open rebellion ; and it some- 
times gives the other pupils an advantage over the 
culprit which may do liim personally much harm. 
The teacher should be convinced that this is the best 
thing he can do before he resorts to it. 



SCHOOL GOVERiq^MEKT 231 

A task.— When and how. 

5. The imposition of a tash. In every school there 
is more or less work to be done ; sncli as sweeping 
the floors, washing the benches, preparing the fuel, 
and making the fires. Unless objection should be made 
by parents, this is one of the most effectual punish- 
ments, especially in cities and large villages, where 
work is a burden, and the attractions of play are most 
powerful. Some difficult schools have been governed 
for months with no other punishment than labor thus 
imposed. Tlie plan is, that if two boys neglect their 
studies so as to attract the attention of the teacher, 
they shall be nominated as members of the committee 
on sweeping, — a duty to be performed after school 
hours. If one or two more are decidedly disorderly, 
they shall be required to make fires, bring up wood, or 
perhaps wash a certain portion of the room. This is 
always assigned pleasantly by the teacher, with the 
understanding, however, that any failure to do the 
allotted work thoroughly and faithfully, will be attended 
with a reappointment till the object is secured. 

If parents should object to this it is not absolutely 
essential to the teacher's success ; but where no objec- 
tion is made, if judiciously managed, it may do very 
much in many of our schools towards producing that 
quiet order which otherwise it might require more 
cogent and less agreeable means to secure. 



232 THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

An objection.— Answer.— Not strongly urged.— The rod. 

It has sometimes been urged as an objection to 
this mode of punishment, that it would tend to 
attach the idea of disgrace to useful labor. It is con- 
ceived that this is by no means the necessary conse- 
quence. On the other hand it would serve to teach 
the difference there always is between a duty im- 
posed and one voluntarily undertaken. The same 
objection would apply to our prison discipline, where 
a man by a wilful disregard of law and the rights of 
others very justly forfeits his services for a time to 
the State. 

I would not lay very much stress upon this mode of 
punishment, though I have known it resorted to under 
favorable circumstances with very good effect. It would 
of course be more effectual in a large town or city than 
in the country, where boys are in the habit of laboring 
at home, and would be quite as willing to labor after 
regular hours at school. 

6. Actual chastisement ivith the rod of correction. I 
have no hesitation (though others have) in placing this 
among the class of proper punishments. As this in- 
volves a great question on the subject of school govern- 
ment, and one that is debated with great zeal and 
warmth in almost every educational meeting that is 
held, I shall feel justified in giving a little more space 
to the consideration of it. 



SCHOOL GOVERi^MP:NT 233 



Corporal punishment.— Views of others.— Nothing to conceal. 



SECTION" IV— CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 

I am aware that when I enter this field I am treading 
on ground every inch of which has been disputed. I 
come to the task of wiitiug on this subject, however, I 
think, without prejudice or asj^erity. Having nothing 
to conceal, I shall express my own views honestly and 
frankly, — views which I entertain after diligently seek- 
ing the truth for some twenty years, during which time 
I have listened to a great deal of discussion, and have 
read carefully and candidly whatever has been Avritten 
by others. Nor do I expect to give universal satisfac- 
tion. There are strong men, and I believe honest men, 
who run to the opposite extremes in their doctrine and 
practice, and who defend the one course or the other as 
if the existence of the world depended upon the issue. 
There are those who not only claim the right to chas- 
tise, but who insist that whipping should be the first 
resort of the teacher in establishing his authority ; and 
to show that this is not a dormant article of their faith, 
they daily and almost hourly demonstrate their 
efficiency in the use of the rod, so that their pupils may 
be living witnesses that they act in accordance with 
their creed. Again, there are others who as earnestly 
deny the right of the teacher to resort to the rod at all. 



234 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Men see differeaitly.— A pnvileg-e claimed.— Authority at any rate. 

and who urge with all their power the efBcacy of moral 
suasion to subdue and control the vicious and the stub- 
born in our schools ; and who are ready to assert 
unequivocally that no man is fit to be employed to 
teach the young who has not the ability to govern all 
the various dispositions he may meet in any school, 
without the use of corporal punishment. 

I have no disposition to question the sincerity and 
honesty of each of these classes, knowing as I do that 
different men see with different eyes, even when the 
circumstances are the same ; much more when their 
circumstances are widely diverse. I have no bitterness 
of language to apply to those who go to the extreme of 
severity ; nor any sneer to bestow upon the name of 
^^moral-suasionist ". But while I accord to other men 
the right of expressing their own opinions, I claim the 
same privilege for myself, — yet without wishing to 
obtrude my opinions upon other men any further than 
they will bear the test of reason and experience. 

It is agreed on all hands tliat the teacher must estab- 
lish authority in some way, hefore he can ])ursue suc- 
cessfully the objects of his school. I have described 
the qualifications which the teacher should possess in 
order to govern well, and I have also given some of the 
means of securing good order without a resort to severity. 
Probably in a large majority of our schools the teacher 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 235 

We must take tlie world as it is.— Mr. Mann quoted. 

with these qualifictitioiis and the employment of these 
means, couki succeed in establishing and maintaining 
good order without any such resort. This should, in 
my opinion, always be done, if possible, — and no one 
will rejoice more than myself to see the day, should 
that day ever come, when teachers shall be so much 
improved as to be able to do this universally. But in 
writing on this subject it is the dictate of common 
sense to take human nature as it is and human teachers 
as they are, and as many of them must be for some time 
to come, — and adapt our directions to the circum- 
stances. Human nature, as it is exhibited in our 
children, is far from being perfect ; and I am sorry to 
say that the parents of our children often exhibit it in 
a still less flattering light. Perhaps no language of 
mine can so well represent the concurrence of circum- 
stances making corporal punishment necessary in our 
schools as it has been done by the Hon. Horace Mann 
in his lecture on " School Punishments^'. '^'^The first 
point," says he, ^^ which I shall consider, is, whether 
corporal punishment is ever necessary in our schools. 
As preliminary to a decision of this question, let us 
take a brief survey of facts. We have in this Common- 
wealth, [Massachusetts,] above one hundred and ninety- 
two thousand children between the ages of four and 
sixteen years. All these children are not only legally 



236 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Difficulties to he met,— in children,— in parents. 

entitled to attend our public schools, but it is our great 
desire to increase that attendance, and he who increases 
it is regarded a reformer. All that portion of these 
children who attend school, enter it from that vast 
variety of homes which exist in the State. From differ- 
ent households, where the wildest diversity of parental 
and domestic influences prevails, the children enter the 
schoolroom, where there must be comparative uniform- 
ity. At home some of these children have been indulged 
in every wish, flattered and smiled upon for the energies 
of their low propensities, and even their freaks and 
whims enacted into household laws. Some have been 
so rigorously debarred from every innocent amusement 
and indulgence, that they have opened for themselves a 
way to gratification through artifice and treachery and 
falsehood. Others from vicious parental exami3le, and 
the corrupting .influences of vile associates, have been 
trained to bad habits and contaminated with vicious 
principles ever since they were oorn ; — some being 
taught that honor consists in whipping a boy larger 
than themselves ; others that the chief end of man is 
to own a box that cannot be opened, and to get money 
enough to fill it ; and others again have been taught 
upon their father^s knees to shape their young lips to 
the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. Now all these 
dispositions, which do not conflict with right more than 



SCHOOL GOVERKMENT 237 



A dilemma. 



they do with each other, as soon as they cross the 
threshokl of the schoolroom, from the different worlds, 
as it were, of homes, must be made to obey the same 
general regulations, to pursue the same studies, and to 
aim at the same results. In addition to these artificial 
varieties, there are natural differences of temperament 
and disposition. 

" Again ; there are about three thousand public 
schools in the State, in which are employed in the 
course of the year about five thousand different per- 
sons, as teachers, including both males and females. 
Excepting a very few cases, these five thousand persons 
have had no special preparation or training for their 
employment, and many of them are young and without 
experience. These five thousand teachers, then, so 
many of whom are unprepared, are to be placed in au- 
thority over the one hundred and ninety-two thousand 
children, so many of whom have been perverted. With- 
out passing through any transition state for improve- 
ment, these parties meet each other in the schoolroom, 
where mutiny and insubordination and disobedience 
are to be repressed, order maintained, knowledge ac- 
quired. He, therefore, who denies the necessity of 
resorting to punishment in our schools, — and to cor- 
poral punishment, too, — virtually affirms twothings : — 
first, that this great number of children, scooped up 



^3^ THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINO 

Neither horn to be chosen.— A miracle. 

from all places, taken at all ages and in all conditions, 
can be deterred from the wrong and attracted to the 
right without punishment ; and secondly, he asserts 
that the five thousand persons whom the towns and 
districts employ to keep their I'espective schools, are 
now, and in the present condition of things, able to ac- 
complish so glorious a work. Neither of these propo- 
sitions am I at present prepared to admit. If there are 
extraordinary individuals — and we know there are 
such — so singularly gifted with talent and resources 
and with the divine quality of love, that they can win 
the affection, and, by controlling the heart, can control 
the conduct of children who for years have been 
addicted to lie, to cheat, to swear, to steal, to fight, still 
I do not believe there are now five thousand such indi- 
viduals in the State whose heavenly services can be 
obtained for this transforming work. And it is useless, 
or worse than useless to say, that such or such a thing 
can be done, and done immediately, without pointing 
out the agents by whom it can be done. One who 
affirms that a thing can be done, without any reference 
to the persons who can do it, must be thinking of 
miracles. If the position were that children may be 
so educated from their birth, and teachers may be so 
trained for their calling as to supersede the necessity 
of corporal punishment, except in cases decidedly 



SCHOOL GOVERKMEKT SS'S 

Divisions in district.— East end.— West end.— "We will see." 

monstrous, then I should have no doubt of its truth ; 
but such a position must have reference to some future 
period, which wc should strive to hasten, but ought not 
to anticipate/^ 

Aside from the causes demanding punishment, so 
ably portrayed in the passage just quoted, there is still 
another, growing out of divisions and quarrels in the 
district. It is by no means uncommon, in our districts, 
owing to some local matter, or to some disunion in 
politics or religion, for the people to be arrayed, the 
one part against the other. The inhabitants of the 
upper road are jealous of the dwellers on the lower 
road ; the liill portion of the district is aggrieved by the 
influence of the valley portion ; the " east end " com- 
plains of the selfishnesG of the '^^west end^^, and so of 
the north and south. Whenever a school-house is to 
be built, these different interests are aroused and a 
protracted and baleful quarrel is the result. One party 
^^ carries the day '' by the force of numbers, but the 
prosperity of the school is impaired for years. At 
every district meeting there will be the same strife for 
the mastery. If one division gains the power, the other 
bends its energies to cripple the school and to annoy 
the teacher who may be employed by the dominant 
party, however excellent or deserving he may be. " We 
will see," say those who find themselves in the minority, 



240 THEORY AKJ3 PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Disobedience encom-aged.— Tlie teaclier's course. 

'Sve will see whether this man can keep our school as 
well as it was done last year by our master/' This is 
uttered in presence of their children — perhaps their 
half-grown sons, who will bo very ready to meet their 
new teacher with prejudice and to act out the mis- 
givings of their parents as to his success. When the 
teacher first enters the school, he is met by oppo- 
sition even before he has time to make an impression 
for good ; opposition which he can scarcely hope to 
surmount as long as it is thus encouraged at homo. 
Now what shall he do ? Shall he yield the point, 
abandon the idea of authority, and endeavor to live 
along from day to day in the hope of a more comfort- 
able state of things by-and-by ? He may bo suro that 
matters will daily grow worse. Shall ho give up in 
despair, and leave the school to some successor ? This 
will only strengthen the opposition and make it more 
violent when the successor shall bo appointed. It is 
but putting the difficulty one step farther off. Besides, 
if the teacher does thus give up and leave the school 
he loses his own reputation as a man of energy, and, in 
the eyes of the world, who perhaps may not know — or 
care to know — all the circumstances, he is held over 
after as incompetent for the office. 

Now it would be very gratifying if the teacher under 
any or all of these difficulties, could possess the moral 



SCHOOL GOVPJRN-MEKT 241 



Shall he yield ? iVo, no.— Establish authority. 



power to quell them all by a look or by the exercise of 
his ingenuity in interesting his pupils in their studies. 
Undoubtedly there are some men who could do it, and 
do it most triumphantly, so as to make their most 
zealous enemies in a few days their warmest friends. 
But there are not many who can work thus at disad- 
vantage. What then shall be done ? Shall the school 
be injured by being disbanded, and the teacher be 
stigmatized for a failure, when he has been employed 
in good faith ? I say no. He has the right to establish 
authority hy corporal infliction ; and thus to save the 
school and also save himself. And more than this ; — if 
there is reasonable ground to believe that by such in- 
fliction he can establish order, and thus make himself 
useful, and save the time and the character of the 
school, he not only has the right, but he is hound by 
duty to use it. The lovers of order in the district have 
a right to expect him to use it, unless by express stipula- 
tion beforehand they have exempted him from it. 
I repeat, then, that it is the teacher's duty to establish 
authority ; ^'^ peaceably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly if 
he must". 

I ought in fairness here to add, as I have before 
hinted, that not unfrequently the necessity for corporal 
infliction exists in the teacher himself. This is often 
proved by a transfer of teachers. One man takes a 



242 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Daily flogging condemned. 

school and can only survive liis term by the exercise of 
whipping. He is followed by another who secures good 
order and the love of the school without any resort to 
the rod. The first dechired that whipping was neces- 
sary in his case to secure good order^ and truly ; but 
the necessity resided in him and not in the school. So 
it often does^ — and while teachers are zealously defend- 
ing the rod, they should also feel the necessity of im- 
proving themselves as the most effectual way to obviate 
its frequent use. 

When authority is once established in a school it is 
comparatively easy to maintain it. There will of course 
be less necessity for resorting to the rod after the teacher 
has obtained the ascendency, unless it be in the event 
of taking some new pupil into the school who is dis- 
posed to be refractory. I have but little respect for the 
teacher who is daily obliged to fortify his authority by 
corporal infliction. Something must be fundamentally 
wrong in the teacher whose machinery of government, 
when once well in motion, needs to be so often forcibly 
wound up. 

From what has already been said it will be seen that I 
do not belong to the number who affirm that the rod of 
correction should never he used in schools. Nor am I 
prepared to ai^yist^ ^ny teacher to iniblish beforehand 
that he will not punish with the rod. It would always 



SCHOOL GOVERJSMEi^T 'M'S 

Say notliiiig about it.— Tliere is au arm of power.— Proposed substitutes. 

be wiser for the teacher to say nothing about it. Very 
little good ever comes of threatening the use of it. 
Threatening of any sort avails but little. A teacher 
may enter a school with the determination to govern it if 
possible without force. Indeed I should advise one 
always to make this determination in his own mind. 
But whenever such a determination is published, the 
probability of success is very much diminished. 

The true way and the safe way, in my opinion, is to 
rely mainly on moral means for the government of the 
school, — to use the rod without much threatening, if 
driven to it by the force of circumstances ; and as soon 
as authority is established, to allow it again to slumber 
with the tacit understanding that it can be again 
awakened from its repose if found necessary. The 
knowledge in the school that there is au arm of power, 
may prevent any necessity of an appeal to it ; and such 
a knowledge can do no possible harm in itself. But if 
the teacher has once pledged himself to the school that 
he will never use the rod, the necessity may soon come 
for him to abandon his position or lose his influence 
over the pupils. 

As much has been said against the use of the rod 
in any case in school government, it may be proper to 
consider briefly some of the sub'stifutes for it which 
have been suggested by its opposers. 



^44 Meoky AKi> PRACTICE oE Teaching 

Solitary conflnement.— Its futility. 

Some have urged solitary confinement. This might 
do in some cases. Undoubtedly an opportunity for 
reflection is of great use to a vicious boy. But then 
how inadequate are the means for this kind of dis- 
cipline in our schools. Most of our school-houses have 
but one room. In such cases solitary confinement is 
out of the question. In other instances there may be 
(as there always should be) a room, not constantly de- 
voted to the purposes of the school. Here a pupil 
could be confined ; and I have no objection whatever 
to this coarse, provided the room is not a dark one, and 
its temperature can be comfortable. But even with 
this facility confinement cannot be relied on as the 
only puiiishment, because if offences should multiply 
and the offenders should all be sent to the same place, 
then confinement would soon cease to be solitary ! 
x\nd suppose some philanthropist should devise a plan 
of a school-house with several cells for the accommoda- 
tion of offenders ; still this punishment would fail 
of its purpose. The teacher has no power to confine a 
pupil much beyond the limit of school hours. This 
the obstinate child would understand, and he would 
therefore resolve to hold out till he must be dismissed, 
and then he would bo the triumphant party. He 
could boast to ihis fellows that he had borne the punish- 
ment, and that without submission or promise for the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 245 



Parental folly.— Expulsion.— Not expedient.— Why ? 



future he had been excused because his time had expired. 
This substitute is often urged by jmrents who have 
tried it successfully in case of their own children in 
their own houses, where it was known that it could 
of course be protracted to any necessary length. Be- 
sides, if the confinement alone was not sufficient, the 
daily allowance of food could be withheld. Under 
such circumstances it may be very effectual, as un- 
doubtedly it often has been ; but he is a very shallow 
parent who, having tried this experiment upon a single 
child, with all the facilities of a parent, prescribes it 
with the expectation of equal success in the govern- 
ment of a large school. 

Others have urged the exjmlsion of such scholars as 
are disohediejit. To this it may be replied that it is 
nob quite certain, under existing laws, whether the 
teacher has the right to expel a scholar from the com- 
mon schools ; and some deny even the right of the 
school officers to do it. Whether the right exists or 
not, it is very questionable whether it is ever expedient 
to expel a scholar for vicious conduct ; and especially 
in cases where there is physical power to control him. 
The vicious and ignorant scholar is the very one who 
most needs the reforming influence of a good educa- 
tion. Sent away from the fountai'ri(5f "knowledge and 
virtue at this — the very time of need — and what may 



246 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Mr. Maun quoted. 

we expect for him but utter ruin ? Such a pupil most 
of all needs the restraint and the instruction of a 
teacher who is capable of exercising the one and afford- 
ing the other. 

But suppose he is dismissed, is there any reason to 
hope that this step will improve the culprit himself or 
better the condition of the school ? Will he not go on 
to establish himself in vice, unrestrained by any good 
influence, and at last become a suitable subject for the 
severity of the laws, an inmate of our prisons, and 
perhaps a miserable expiator of his own crimes upon 
the gallows ? How many youth — and youth worth 
saving, too — have been thus cast out perversely to pro- 
cure their own ruin, at the very time when they might 
have been saved by sufficient energy and benevolence, 
no mortal tongue can tell ! Nor is the school itself 
usually benefited by this measure. ^' For all purposes 
of evil,^' Mr. Mann justly remarks, ^' he continues in 
the midst of the very children from among whom he 
was cast out ; and when he associates with them out of 
school, there is no one present to abate or neutralize his 
vicious influences. If the expelled pupil be driven 
from the district where he belongs into another, in 
order to prevent his contamination at home, what bet- 
ter can be expected of the place to which he is sent 
than a reciprocation of the deed, by their sending one 



SCHOOL GOVEKHMEAT 247 

" Free trade."— A creed, and its basis.— Tlie Scriptures. 

of their outcasts to supply his place ; and thus opening 
a commerce of evil upon free-trade principles. Kothing 
is gained while the evil purpose remains in the heart. 
Reformation is the great desidei'atum ; and can any 
lover of his country hesitate between the alteimative of 
forcible subjugation and victorious contumacy ?" 

From all that has been said it will be seen that I do 
not hesitate to teach that corporal injliction is one of 
the justifiable means of estaUisldng authority in the 
schoolroo7n. To this conclusion I have come, after a 
careful consideration of the subject, modified by the 
varied experience of nearly twenty years, and by a 
somewhat attentive observation of the workings of all 
the plans which have been devised to avoid its use or 
to supply its place. And although I do not understand 
the Scriptures, and particularly the writings of Solo- 
mon, to recommend a too frequent and ill-considered 
use of it, I do not find anything in the letter or spirit 
of Christianity inconsistent with its proper application. 
It is the abuse, and not the use of the rod, against which 
our better feeling, as well as the spirit of Christianity, 
revolts. It is the abiise of the rod, or i-atlier the abuse 
of children under the infliction of the rod, tliat first 
called forth the discussion referred to and awakened 
the general opposition to its use. I am ,free to admit 
there has been an egregious abuse in this matter, and 



248 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Limitations.— The best tiling-.— Never in anger. 

that to this day it is unabated in many of our schools. 
I admit, too, that abuse very naturally accompanies the 
use of the rod, and that very great caution is necessary 
in those who resort to it, lest they pervert it. I feel 
called upon therefore before leaving this subject to 
throw out for the consideration of the young teacher 
particularly a few hints to regulate the infliction of 
chastisement, under the head of 

SECTION y — LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. The teacher should be thoroughly convinced that 
the rod is tlie best tiling for the specific case before he 
determines to use it. Nor should he hastily or capri- 
ciously come to this conviction. He should carefully 
and patiently try other means first. He should study 
the disposition of the offender and learn the tendencies 
of his mind ; and only after careful deliberation should 
he suffer himself to decide to use this mode of punish- 
ment. In order that the punishment should be salutary, 
the scholar should ^olainly see that the teacher resorts to 
it fi'om deep principle, from the full belief that under 
all the circumstances it is the best thing that can be done. 

2. The teacher should never be under the excitement 
of angry passio7i when inflicting the punishment. 
This is of the utmost importance. Most of the abuses 
before spoken of grow out of a violation of this fun- 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 249 



The young Shaker.— Public opinion.— In presence of the school. 



damental rule. A teacher should never strike for pun- 
ishment till he is perfectly self-possessed and entirely free 
from the bitterness which perhaps tinctured his mind 
when he discovered the offence. It was a wise remark 
of a young Shaker teacher that '' no teacher should 
strike a child till he could "hold Ms arm ". So long as 
the child discovers that the teacher is under the influence 
of passion, and that his lip trembles with pent-up rage, 
and his blood flows into his face as if driven by inward 
fires of wrath, he looks upon him, not as his friend seek- 
ing his welfare, but as his enemy indulging in persecu- 
tion. This will call forth the evil passions of the child, 
and while he bears the pain he feels no real penitence ; 
and very likely in the midst of his suffering he resolves 
to go and do the same again out of mere spite. 

It is moreover of great consequence in the infliction 
of a punishment that the teacher should be fully sus- 
tained by the public opinion of the school. He can 
never expect this when he loses his self-control. If the 
pupils see that he is angry, they almost instinctively 
sympathize with the weaker party, and tliey associate 
the idea of injustice with the action of the stronger. 
A punishment can scarcely be of any good tendency 
inflicted under such circumstances. 

3. Corporal punishment, as a general v\\\q, should he 
inflicted in presence of the school. I have before advised 



250 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Reasons for It. 

that reproof should be given in private, and assigned 
reasons for it which were perhaps satisfactory to the 
reader. But in case of corporal punishment the 
offence is of a more public and probably of a more 
serious nature. If inflicted in private it will still 
be known to the school, and therefore the reputation 
of the scholar is not saved. If inflicted in the proper 
spirit by the teacher and for proper cause, it always 
produces a salutary effect upon the school. But a still 
stronger reason for making the infliction public is, that 
it puts it beyond the power of the pupil to misrepresent 
the teacher, as he is strongly tempted to do if he is 
alone. He may mistake the degree of severity, and 
misrepresent the manner of the teacher ; and, without 
witnesses, the teacher is at the mercy of his reports. 
Sometimes he may ridicule the punishment to his 
comrades, and lead them to believe that a private in- 
fliction is but a small matter ; again he may exag- 
gerate it to his parents, and charge the teacher most 
unjustly with unprincipled cruelty. Under these cir- 
cumstances I am of the opinion that the safest and 
most effectual way is to do this work in the presence of 
the school. An honest teacher needs not fear the light 
of day ; and if he has the right spirit he needs not fear 
the effect upon his other pupils. It is only the violent, 
angry punishment that needs to be concealed from the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 251 



Punishment delayed.— The instrument.— Punishment effectual. 



j^enenil eve, and that we have condemned as improper 



£3 

at any rate. 



4. Punishment may sometimes he delayed; and al- 
ways delayed till all anger has subsided in the teacher. 
It is often best for all concerned to defer an infliction for 
a day or more. This gives the teacher an opportunity in 
his cooler moments to determine more justly the degree of 
severity to be used. It will also give the culprit time to 
reflect upon the nature of his offence and the degree of 
punishment he deserves. I may say that it is generally 
wise for the teacher, after promising a punishment, to 
take some time to consider what it shall be, whether a 
corporal infliction or some milder treatment. If, after 
due and careful reflection, he comes conscientiously to 
the conclusion that bodily pain is the best thing, — while 
he will be better prepared to inflict, the pupil, by similar 
reflection, will be better prepared to receive it and 
profit by it. 

5. J proper instrument should be used and a ^jro/^er 
mode of infliction adopted. No heavy and hurtful 
weapon should be employed. A light rule for the hand, 
or a rod for the back or lower extremities, may be pre- 
ferred. Great care should be exercised to avoid injuring 
any of the joints in the infliction ; and on no account 
should a blow be given upon the Ikd^l' '• 

6. If possible, the punishment should be made effectual. 



252 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Deliberation, and tliorougli worlc. 

A punishment that does not produce thorough submis- 
sion and penitence in the subject of it^ can hardly be 
said to answer its main design. To be sure, in cases of 
general insubordination in the school, I have said that 
punishment may be applied to one, having in view the 
deterring of others from similar offences. But such 
exemplary punishment belongs to extreme cases, while 
cl'isci2)Unary punishment, which has mainly for its ob- 
ject the reformation of the individual upon whom it is 
inflicted, should be most relied on. Taking either view 
of the case it should if possible answer its design, or it 
would be better not to attempt it. The teacher's judg- 
ment, therefore, should be very carefully exercised in 
the matter, and all his knowledge of human nature should 
be called into requisition. If after careful and consci- 
entious deliberation he comes to the conclusion that the 
infliction of pain is the best thing, and to the belief that 
he can so inflict it as to show himself to the school and to 
the child, in this act as in all others, a true and kind 
friend to the child, — then he is justified in making the 
attempt ; and having considerately undertaken the case, 
it should be so thorough as not soon to need repetition. 

I would here take the opportunity to censure the 
practice of those 'te.^chers who punish every little de- 
parture from duty with some trifling appliance of the 



SCHOOL GOVEllXMEXT 253 



Little whippings.'"— Hovv^ to discuss tliis sul;ject. 



rod, wliich the scholar forgets almost as soon as the 
smarting ceases. Some instructors carry about with 
them a rattan or stick in order to have it ready for 
appliance as soon as they see any departure from their 
commands. The consequence is they soon come to a 
frequent and inconsiderate use of it, and the pupils by 
habit become familiar with it, and of course cease to 
respect tlieir teacher or to dread his punishments. I 
have seen so much of this that whenever I sec a teacher 
thus ''armed and eqiiipped'\ I infer at once that his 
school is a disorderly one, an inference almost invariably 
confirmed by a few minutes^ observation. My eai-nest 
advice to all young teachers w^ould be, next to the habit 
of scolding incessantly, avoid the habit of resortirig to 
the rod on every slight occasion. When that instrument 
is not demanded for some special exigency, some great 
occasion and some high purpose, allow it to slumber in 
a i^rivate corner of your desk, not again to be called into 
activity till some moral convulsion shall disturb its 
quiet repose. 

I have a single caution to give in regard to the dis- 
cussion of this subject, which in all our educational 
gatherings occupies so much time and talent. It is 
this : — Do not adopt a general principle from too feiu 
inductions. There is an old proverb that declares, 
''One swallow does not make a summer/* Young 



254 THEOIiY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Experience cf very young- men.— Resolutions. 



teachers are very prone to rely on the experience of a 
single term. If they have kept one term without cor- 
poral punishment, they ai-e very likely to instruct their 
seniors with their experiejice ; and if they have happened 
to be so situated as to be compelled to save themselves 
by the rod, why then too their experience forever settles 
the question. It requires the experience of more than 
07ie, or hvo, or three schools, to enable a man to speak 
dogmatically on this subject ; and I always smile when 
I hear men, and sometimes very young men, who have 
never kept school in their lives, perhaps, or at most but 
a single term, speaking as with the voice of authority. 
Experience is indeed one of our safest guides in this as 
in every other matter; but they who tell their ex- 
perience should at least wait till they have that which is 
worthy to he told. 

nere is another point. It is quite fashionable at the 
present day, whenever this subject is to be discussed, 
to propose the matter in the form of n resoltitio7i ; as, 
" Resolved, that no person is fit to be employed as a 
teacher who cannot govern his scholars by holier means 
than bodily chastisement; " or, '' Eesolved, that no limit 
should be set to the teacher's right to use the ^rod of 
correction', and that they who denounce the teachers 
for resorting to it are unworthy of our confidence in 
matters of education. " Now whoever presents the 



SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 255 

A false position.— French resolution. 

question in this form assumes that he has drawn a line 
through the very core of the truth ; and he undertakes 
to censure all those who are unwilling to square their 
opinions by the line thus drawn. In the discussion a 
man must take one side or the other of the question as 
it is proposed, and consequently he may take a false 
position. The better way would be to present the 
whole subject as matter of free remark, and thus leave 
every one to present his own views honestly as they Ue 
in his own mind. In this way no one is pledged to 
this or that party, but is left unprejudiced to discover 
and embrace the truth wherever it is found 

It should moreover be remembered that resolving by 
the vote of a meeting in order to force inihlic opinion 
can never affect the truth. A few impious, heaven- 
daring men in France, at one of their revels, once 
resolved, ''There is no God!" — but did this blas- 
phemous breath efface the impress of Deity on all this 
fair creation of his power ? And when they rose from 
their vile debauch and sought with tottering step to 
leave the scene of madness and to court the dim forget- 
fulness of sleep, — rolled not the shining orbs in heaven^s 
high arch above them as much in duty to His will, as 
when they sang together to usher in creation's morning ? 
So it will ever be. Men may declare and resolve as 
they please ; but truth is eternal and unchangeable ; 



^5(i TllKOIiY ANJ) PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

A more excellent way.— Higher motives first. 

and they are the wisest men who modestly seek to find 
her as she is, and not as their perverted imaginations 
would presume to paint her. 

Yet after all, in the government of schools, there is 
a more excellent way. There are usually easier avenues 
to the heart than that which is found through the in- 
teguments of the body. Happy is that teacher who is 
so skilful as to find them ; and gladly would I w^elcome 
the day when the number of such skilful and devoted 
teachers should render any further defence of the rod 
superfluous. Although I believe that day has not yet 
arrived, still in the meantime I most earnestly urge 
all teachers to strive to reach the higher motives and 
the finer feelings of the young, and to rely mainly for 
success, not upon appeals to fear and force, but upon 
the power of conscience and the law of reciprocal 
affection. 

As I have placed the higher motives and the more 
desirable means first in order in these remarks on 
government, so I would always have them first and 
perseveringly employed by the teacher ; and if by earn- 
estness in his work, by unfeigned love for the young, 
by diligence in the study of their natures and the adapt- 
ation of means to ends which true benevolence is sure 
to suggest, he can govern successfully without corporal 



SCHOOL CtOTERNMEKT 257 

Minimum the maximum ! 

punishment — as in a large proportion of cases I believe 
it can be done — none will rejoice more than I at such a 
desirable result ; and I most cordially subscribe to 
the principle so happily stated by another, that in the 
government of schools, if thorough obedience be but 
secured and order maintained, other things being equal, 
''The minimum of pun"ishmekt is the maximum of 



CHAPTER X 

SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 

TJ^ VERY teacher before opening a school should have 
I J some general plan in his mind of what he intends 
to accomplish. In every enterprise there is great ad- 
vantage to be derived from forethought, — and perhaps 
nowhere is the advantage greater than in the business 
of teaching. The day of opening a school is an event- 
ful day to the young teacher. A thousand things 
crowd upon him at the same time, and each demands a 
prompt and judicious action on his part. The children 
to the number of half a hundred all turn their inquiring 
eyes to him for occupation and direction. They have 
come full of interest in the prospects of the new school, 
ready to engage cheerfully in whatever plans the teacher 
may have to propose ; and, I was about to say, just as 
ready to arrange and carry into effect their own plans 
of disorder and misrule, if they, unhappily for him and 
for themselves, find he has no system to introduce. 

What a critical — what an eventful moment is this 
first day of the term to all concerned ! The teacher^s 
success and usefulness, — nay, his reputation as an 
efficient instructor, — now ''hang upon the decision of 



School akraxgemexts 250 

Ang-ellc solicitude.— Low qualifications. 

an honr'\ An hour, too, may almost foretell whether 
the i^recions season of childhood and youth now before 
these immortals is to be a season of profit and health- 
ful culture under a judicious hand, or a season of 
Avasted — perhaps worse than wasted — existence, under 
the imbecility or misguidance of one who ^^ knows not 
what he does or what he deals with/^ 

If angels ever visit our earth and hover unseen around 
the gatherings of mortals to survey their actions and 
contemplate their destiny as affected by human instru- 
mentality, it seems to me there can be no spectacle so 
calculated to awaken their interest and enkindle their 
sympathy as when they see the young gathering to- 
gether from their scattered homes in some rural district, 
to receive an impress, for weal or woe, from the hand of 
him who has undertaken to guide them. And suppos- 
ing them to have the power to appreciate to the full 
extent the consequences of human agency, how must 
they be touched w^ith emotions of joy and gratitude, or 
shudder with those of horror and dread, as they witness 
the alternations of wisdom and folly, seriousness and in- 
difference, sincerity and duplicity, purity and defile- 
ment, exhibited by him who has assumed to be at once 
the director and exemplar in the formation of human 
character, at such an important period. How deplorable 
is the thought that all the fond hopes of the parents, ail 



260 THEOHY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

The first day.— A suggestion.— Its advantages. 

the worthy aspirings of the children, and all the thrilling 
interests of higher beings, are so often to be answered 
by qualifications so scanty, and by a spirit so indifferent 
in the teacher of the young. How sad the thought 
that up to this very moment so pregnant with conse- 
quences to all concerned, there has been too often so 
little of preparation for the responsibility. 

I fain would impress the young teacher with the im- 
portance of having a plan for even the first day of the 
school. It will raise him surprisingly in the estimation 
of the pupils and also of the parents if he can make an 
expeditious and efficient beginning of the school. While 
the dull teacher is slowly devising the plans he will by 
and hy present for the employment and improvement of 
his school, the children taking, advantage of their own 
exemption from labor, very promptly introduce their 
own plans for amusing themselves or for annoying him ; — 
whereas if he could but have his own plans already 
made, and could promptly and efficiently carry them 
into execution, he would forestall their mischievous 
designs and make co-operators out of liis opposers. 

In order to be sure of a successful commencement I 
would recommend that the teacher should go into the 
district a few days before the school is to begin. By 
careful inquiry of the trustees or the school committee 
he can ascertain what are the character of the district 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 361 



Important inquiries. 



and wants of the school. This will aiforcl him consider- 
able aid. But he should do more than this. He would 
do well to call on several of the families of the district 
whose children are to become members of his school. 
This he can do without any ceremony, simply saying to 
them that, as he has been appointed their teacher, he is 
desirous as far as he may to ascertain their wants, in 
order to be as prompt as possible in the organization of 
his school. He will of course see the children them- 
selves. From them he can learn what was the organ- 
ization of the school under his predecessor ; how many 
studied geography, how many arithmetic, grammar, 
etc. ; and he can also learn whether the former organ- 
ization was satisfactory to the district or not. The 
modes of government and the methods of interesting 
the pupils practised by the former teacher would be 
likely to be detailed to him ; and from the manner of 
both parents and children he could judge whether 
similar methods would still be desirable in the district. 
By calling on several of the largest families in this way, 
he would learn beforehand very accurately the state of 
the school and the state of the district. 

I will take this occasion to insist that the teacher in 
these visits should heartily discourage any forwardness, 
so common among children, to disparage a former 
teacher. It should be his sole object to gain useful in- 



262 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINC^ 



Caution against meanness.— Making- personal friends.— A common error. 

formation. He should give no signs of pleasure in 
listening to any unfavorable statements as to his prede- 
cessor ; and I may add that during the progress of the 
school he should ever frown upon any attempt on 
the part of the pupils to make comparisons derogatory 
to a former teacher. This is a practice altogether too 
prevalent in our schools ; and I am sorry to say there 
are still too many teachers who are mean enough to 
countenance it. Such a course is unfair, because the 
absent party may be grossly misrepresented ; it is dan- 
gerous, because it tends to cultivate a spirit of detraction 
in the young ; and it is mean, because the party is 
absent and has no opportunity of defending himself. 

Another important advantage of the visits proposed 
would be that he would make the acquaintance of many 
of the children beforehand ; and very likely, too, if he 
should go in the right spirit and with agreeable man- 
ners he would make a favorable impression upon them, 
and thus he would have personal friends on his side to 
begin with. The parents too would see that he took 
an interest in his employment ; that he had come 
among them in the spirit of his vocational! the spirit 
of earnestness ; and they would become interested in his 
success, — a point of no small importance. 

I might here caution the teacher against a very com- 
jiion error. He should not confine hi§ visits to the 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 263 

Mr. Abbott.— Early at tlie school.— Wliy ? 

more wealthy and influential families. The poor and 
the humble should receive his attentions as soon as the 
rich. From the latter class very likely a large portion 
of his school will come ; and it is wrong in jn-inciple as 
well as policy to neglect those who have not been as 
successful as others in the one item of accumulating 
property. 

On the day of opening the school he should be early 
at the school-house. Mr. Abbott, in his Teacher, 
has some valuable suggestions on this point. ^^It 
is desirable/"^ he says, " that the young teacher should 
meet his scholars at first in an ^Diofficial capacity. 
For this purpose he should repair to the schoolroom on 
the first day at an early hour, so as to see and become 
acquainted with the scholars as they come in one 
by one. He may take an interest with them in all 
the little arrangements connected with the opening 
of the school, — the building of the fire, the paths 
through the snow, the arrangement of seats : calling 
upon them for information or aid, asking their names, 
and in a word, entering fully and freely into conversa- 
tion with them, just as a parent under similar circum- 
stances would do with his children. All the children 
thus addressed will be pleased with the gentleness and 
affability of the teacher. Even a rough and ill-natured 
boy, who has perhaps come to the school with the ex- 



264 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

It should be habitual.— Roguery promoted. 

press determination of attempting to make mischief, 
will be completely disarmed by being asked pleasantly 
to help the teacher fix the fire, or alter the position of 
a desk. Thus by means of the half hour during which 
the scholars are coming together, the teacher will 
find when he calls upon the children to take their 
seats that he has made a large number of them his 
personal friends. Many of these will have communi- 
cated their first impressions to others, so that he will 
find himself possessed, at the outset, of that which is 
of vital consequence in opening any administration — a 
strong party in his favor/' 

It will be well for the teacher for several days, both 
in the morning and afternoon, to be early at the school- 
room. He can thus continue his friendly intercourse 
with the pupils, and effectually prevent any concerted 
action among them at that hour to embarrass his gov- 
ernment. Many a school has been seriously injured, if 
not broken up, by the scholars' being allowed to 
assemble early at the school with nothing to occupy 
them and no one to restrain them. Having so con- 
venient an opportunity for mischief, their youthful 
activity will be very likely to find egress in an evil 
direction. Many a tale of roguery could be told, 
founded upon the incidents of the schoolroom before 
school hours, if those who have good memories would 



SCHOOL ARRANGEME]SrTS 265 

A day's work.—" Wliat shall I do ? "— " Yes, m'm." 

but reveal their own experience ; — roguery that never 
Avould have occurred had the teacher adopted the 
course here suggested. 

SECTION I — PLAK OF THE DAY^S WORK 

It will be remembered by many of the readers of this 
volume, that in former times numerous teachers were 
accustomed to work without a plan, attempting to do 
their work just as it liapjjened to demand attention, 
but never taking the precaution to have this demand 
under their own control. If one scholar or class was 
not ready to recite, another would be called ; and there 
being no particular time for tlie various exercises, the 
school would become a scene of mere listlessness ; and 
the teacher would hardly know how to find employment 
for himself in the school. 

I shall make this point clearer by an example. 
Having occasion, in an official capacity, to visit a school 
which had been kept by a young teacher some two 
weeks, she very naturally asked — ^MVhat shall I do 
first, this afternoon ? " 

''Do precisely as you would if I had not come in," 
was the reply. 

She looked a little perplexed. At length she doubt- 
ingly asked, — ^' Is the geography lesson ready V 

'' Yes, m'm '' — " Iso, m'm ''—''Yes, m'm," — was the 



266 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Veto.— A hard time.— A hint given. 

ambiguous reply from tlie class. There was so much 
of veto in the looks of the young geographers, that it 
amounted to prohibition. 

'^Well, are the scholars in Colburn's arithmetic 
ready ?^^ 

This was said with more of hope ; but the same 
equivocal answer was vociferated from all parts of the 
room. The teacher, placing her finger upon her lip, 
looked despairingly ; but recollecting one more resort, 
she said, — " Is the grammar class ready ? '' 

Again came the changes on ^' Yes, m'm,'' and *•' No, 
m^m." 

The teacher gave up, and asked what she should do. 
She was again told to go on as tisual for that afternoon. 
It was a tedious afternoon to her, as it was to her 
visitor. She at length called one of the classes, unpre- 
pared as many of them said they were, and the exercise 
showed that none but those who said ''^ Yes, m^m '", were 
mistaken. The whole afternoon seemed to be one of 
pain and mortification to all concerned ; and I fancied 
I could almost read in the knitted brow of the teacher 
a declaration that that should be her last school. 

At the close of the afternoon a single hint was sug- 
gested to her, — viz., that she should make out a list of 
her scholars' duties, and the times when they would be 
expected to recite their several lessons. She was told 



SCHOOL ARRAKGEMENTS 267 

Improvement.— A case supposed.— Classification. 

that it would be well to explain this plan of her clay's 
work to her school in the morning, and then never 
again ash lolietlier a class was ready. The hint was 
taken ; and on subsequent visitations the several 
classes were ever ready to respond to the call of their 
instructor. 

Now this matter is no unimportant one to the teacher. 
Indeed I judge of a teacher's ability very much by the 
wisdom and tact with which he apportions his time for 
his own duties, and divides the time of his scholars be- 
tween their studies and recitations. 

In order to aid the young teacher in forming a plan 
for himself, I subjoin a scheme of a day's duties, 
adapted to a school of the simplest grade. Suppose a 
school to consist of thirty scholars, and that the teacher 
finds by inquiry and by examination that there may be 
four grand divisions ; the first, which he designates [A,] 
may unite in pursuing Eeading, Grammar, Mental 
Arithmetic, Written Arithmetic, and Writing. The 
second, [B,] can pursue Reading, Spelling, Writing, 
Geography, Mental and Written Arithmetic. The 
third, [C,] attend to Eeading, Spelling, Mental Arith- 
metic, Writing, and Geography. The fourth, [D,] 
consisting of the small pupils, attend to Reading, 
Spelling, Tables, and sundry slate exercises. 

J^ow it is verv desirable that as much time should 



268 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Preliminary considerations.— A scheme. 

be devoted to recitation as can be afforded to eacb 
class. It may be seen at once that in certain studies, as 
geography, mental arithmetic, and spelling — the teacher 
can as well attend to fifteen at once as to seven. In 
these studies, unless the disparity in age and attain- 
ment is very great, two divisions can very properly 
be united. All can be taught writing at once, thus 
receiving the teacher^s undivided attention for the time. 
Besides, it is necessary to reserve some little time for 
change of exercises, and also for the mtei^rujjtioiis 
which must necessarily occur. Tlie recesses are to 
be provided for, and some time may be needed for 
investigation of violations of duty and for the punish- 
ment of offenders. All this variety of work will occur 
in every school, even the smallest. Now, if the teacher 
does not arrange this in accordance with some plan, he 
will be very much perplexed, even in a small school ; 
and how much more in a large one ! He will do well 
very carefully to consider the relative importance of 
each exercise to be attended to, and then to write out 
his scheme somewhat after the following model. It 
must not be forgotten that studying is also to be 
provided for, and that it is just as important that 
the pupils should be regular in this as in recitation* 
Indeed, without such regularity he cannot expect ac- 
ceptable recitations. 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 



26D 



Programme. 
For the above supposed circumstances. 



Time. 


M. 


Recitations^ etc. 


studies. 


9 to 9.15 


15 


Reading, Sckipt., & Prayer. 




9.15 to 9.40 


25 


i D. Reading, Spelling-, or ) 
( Tables. | 


A. Reading; B. Ai-itli. ; 
C. Geography. 


9.40 to 9.42 


J_ 


Rest, Change of Classes, etc. 




9.42 to 10 


18 


A. Reading. 


1 B. Arith. ; C. Geog. ; 
( D. Slates. 


10 to 10.5 


5 


f Rest, Singing, ok An-) 

■( SWERING Q.UESTIONS. j" 





10.5 to 10.25 



B. Arithmetic. 



10.25 to 10.28 



10.28 to 10.48 



10.48 to 11 



11 to 11.15 
11.15 to 11.. 35 
11.35 to 11.50 



11.50 to 12 



Rest, etc. 



f A. Gram. ; C. Geog. ; 
( D. Books or Cards. 



B. & C. Geography. 



Recess. 



D. Reading, etc. 

A. Grammar. 

B. & C. Spelling. 



General Exercise. 



A. Gram. ; D. Recess. 



(A. Gram. ; B. M. Arith. ; 

\ C. Spelling, 

(B. Spelling; C. Spell- 

\ ing ; D. Slates. 

( A. M. Arith. ; D. Books 

( or Cards. 



Intermi.ssiGn. 



2 to 2.15 

2.15 to 2.45 
2.45 to 3.10 

3.10 to 3.30 



3.30 to 3.40 



to 4 



4 to 4.5 



4.5 to 4.25 
4.25 to 4.55 



4.55 to 5 



D. Reading, Spelling, Tables. 

A. B. & C. Writln:;. 

A. & B. Mental Arithmetic. 

C. Reading. 



Recess. 



(A. Arith. ;B. Reading; 

( C. Reading. 

D. Slates. 

C. M. Arith. ; D. Recess. 

/A. Arith.; B. Arith.; 

( D. Books, etc. 



fA.Arith.;C.M. Arith. 
( D. Drawing. 



Rest, or Singing. 



C. Mental Arithmetic. 
A. Arithmetic. 



Gen. Exer. and Dismission. 



(A. Read. : B. Arith. or 

Draw. ; D. Slates. 
B. Arith. or Draw. ; C. 
Draw. ; D. Dismissed. 



270 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING^ 



A clock.— Study provided for.— Drawing. 



Remarks. 

In the foregoing Programme the first column shows 
the division of time and the jjortion allowed to each 
exercise. I need not say the teacher should be strictly 
punctual. To this end a clock is a very desirable 
article in the school. Both teacher and pupils would 
be benefited by it. The second column shows the 
recitations, admitting perhaps some variety, especially 
in case of the younger children ; while the third shows 
the occupation of those classes which are not engaged 
in recitation. 

It will be seen that the classes are studying those 
lessons which they are soon to recite ; and, as in this 
case it is supposed that all the lessons will be learned 
in school, each one has been provided for. It would 
be well, however, in practice to require one of the 
studies to be learned out of school, in which case no 
time should be allowed to the study of that branch in 
the programme. 

It will be perceived that drawing is placed as the 
occupation of the younger classes near the close of the 
afternoon. This is based upon the supposition that the 
teacher during recess has placed an example on the 
blackboard to be copied by the children upon their 



SCHOOL ARKANGEMENTS 271 

An assistant.— A large scliool.— Alternation. 

slates. This is perhaps the most effectual way to teach 
drawing to children. Those more advanced, however, 
may use paper and pencil and draw from an engraved 
copy, or from a more finished specimen furnished from 
the teacher^s portfolio. It is essential that the teacher 
should, if possible, give some specimens of his own in 
this branch. I have seldom known a teacher to excite 
an interest in drawing who relied altogether upon en- 
gravings as models for imitation. 

It should be remarked further concerning such a 
programme, that in case of an assistant in the school 
two columns under the head of Recitations should be 
formed — one for the principaFs classes and one for the 
assistant's. If there are a few talented scholars who 
are able to do more than their class, they can be allowed 
to join some of the classes out of their division, or they 
may be provided with an extra study, which will not 
need daily recitation. 

In case the school is much larger than the one sup- 
posed above, and the classes necessarily so numerous as 
to make the time allowed to each study very short, 
then the principle of alternation may be introduced ; 
that is, some studies may be recited Mondays, Wednes- 
days, and Fridays, — and some other studies, with other 
classes, take their places on the alternate days. It is 
decidedly better for the teacher to meet a clasS; in 



272 THEORY AKB PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Tborougli work.— Nibbling.— Difficulty of classifying. 

arithmetic for instance, especially of older pupils, but 
twice or three times a week, having time enough at each 
meeting to make thorough work, than to meet them 
daily, but for a time so short as to accomplish but 
little. The same remark may be applied to reading, 
and indeed almost any other branch. The idea is a 
mischievous one, that every class in reading, or in 
any other branch, must be called out four times a day, 
or even twice a day, — except in the case of very young 
children. It may be compared to nibbling at a cracker 
as many times in a day, without once taking a hearty 
meal, — a process which would emaciate any child in 
the course of three months. These scanty nibblings at 
the table of knowledge, so often and so tenaciously 
practised, may perhaps account for the mental emacia- 
tion so often discoverable in many of our schools. 

The difficulty of classifying and arranging the exer- 
cises of a school becomes greater as the number of 
teachers to be employed increases ; and there is much 
greater inconvenience in allowing any pupils to study 
out of their own division when the number of teachers 
is more than one or two. Few are aware of the diffi- 
culty of arranging the exercises of a large school, but 
those who have experienced it. It can he done, how- 
ever ; and it should always be done as soon as possible 
after commencing the school. 

If at any time the arrangement when made is not 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 273 

Way to correct a scheme.— Programme of a large school.— Next page. 



found to be perfect, it is not wise to change it at once. 
Let it go on a few days, and watch its defects with 
great care ; and in the meantime study out of school to 
devise a better. When this has been accomplislied and 
committed to paper, and perfectly comprehended by 
the teacher, it may be j^osted up in the schoolroom, and 
the day announced when it will go into 02:)eration. It 
will soon be understood by the pupils and the change 
can thus be made without the loss of time. 

Time for reviews of the various lessons could be 
found by setting aside the regular lessons for some par- 
ticular day, once a week, or once in two weeks ; and 
for composition, declamation, etc., a half day should be 
occasionally or periodically assigned. 

In order to give the reader a more complete idea of 
arrangement under varied circumstances, I subjoin the 
programme of the Kew York State Normal School, as 
copied by the Executive Committee in their Annual 
Report, made January, 1846. 

It should be borne in mind that this was the pro- 
gramme for only a part of one term ; and also that in 
this Institution the studying is done out of school 
hours, the time of regular session, with very few ex- 
ceptions, being entirely devoted to recitations or gen- 
eral instruction. See next page. 



274 



THEOPtY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 



Programme of New Yorh State Normal School. 

October 20, 1845, and onward. 



Time. 


Exercises. 


Teachers. 


9 A. M. to 9.:^ Chapel Exercises, etc. in Lecture PtOOM. 






A. Class. Trigonometry and Surveying. . . 
B Class Algebra 


Prof. Perkins. 
Mr Clark 




C. Class. Higher AritlimetiG 


Mr. Webb. 


9.30 to 10.15 




Mr. Eaton 




E Class Grammar 


Mr Bowen 




TT Pln<^c! rifnoTrmhv 


Miss TTanpp 








10.15 to 10.25 


Intermission ok General Exercise. 










10.25 to 11.10 


B. Class. Grammar— Tuesday and Friday 

C. Class. Reading— Tuesday and Friday. 

C. Class. Grammar— Monday and Tliursd. 

D. Class. History and reading, alternately 
E Class Geoo'rapby 


Mr. Bowen. 
Principal. 
Mr. Bowen. 
Miss Hance. 
Mr Webb 




F Class Ortliocrapliy 


Air Ti!flt,nn 








11.10 to 11.15 


Intermission. 






A. Class. Science of Government 










11.15 to 12 


C. Class. Algebra— Mond.,Tues. &Tliurs. 

C. Class. Joins D. Class in Lecture, Nat-) 

ural Pbilosopby— Friday.. 1 

D. Class. Natural Philosophy- daily 

E. Class. Elementary Arithmetic 

F. Class. Grammar 


Prof. Perkins. 

Mr. Clark. 

Mr. Webb. 
Mr. Bowen. 


12 to 12.15 


Recess. 






A. Class. Geometry 

B Class Hjc^her \ritlimetic 


Mr. Bowen. 
Prof Perkins 






Mr. Clark. 


12.14 to 1 


D. Class. ArilliUKtic 

E. Class. Reading and Orthography 

F Class Readin"' 


Mr. Webb. 
Mr. Eaton. 
Miss Hance 








1 to 1.5 


Intermission. 








Mr Clai'k 




B. and C. Classes. Human Physiology .... 


Principal. 




E Class Mental Arithmetic 


Miss Hance 




F. Class. Elementary Arithmetic 


Mr. Webb. 


1.50 to 2 j Dismission. 





Wednesday is devoted to Penmanship, Composition, Declamation, " Sub- 
Lectures," Lectures, and General Exercises. 



3p, m. to 4.30 



VOCAL MUSIC. 

A. Class. Mond. ) 

B. Class. Wed. [ Mr. Ilsley 

C. Class. Friday. ) 



A. Class. Tues. ) ,,,, 

B. Class. Thurs. Howard 

C. Class. Satur. ) "owaid. 



^CSOOL ARRAKGEMENTS ^75 



Models not to be copied.— Teacher must think.— Interruptions. 



If I have devoted considerable space to this subject 
it is because I deem it of great importance to the 
teacher's success. With one other remark I dismiss it. 
These models are not given to be servilely copied. 
They are given to illustrate the great principle. The 
circumstances of schools will be found to vary so widely 
that no model, however perfect in itself, would answer 
for all. The teacher must exercise his own ingenuity 
and judgment to meet his own wants ; and in general 
it may be remarked that where a teacher has not the 
skill to adapt his own plans to his own circumstances, 
he can hardly be expected to succeed in carrying out 
the plans of another. 

SECTION II — INTERRUPTIONS 

In every school consisting of pupils of different ages 
and circumstances, there will be more or less of inter- 
ruption to the general order and employment of the 
school. Some of the pupils have never been trained 
to system at home ; perhaps most of them may have 
been positively taught to disregard it at school. At 
any rate, ''it must needs be," in this particular, ''that 
oSences come." Nor should the teacher lose his pa- 
tience though he should be often disturbed by the 
thoughtlessness of his pupils. He should expect it as a 



276 THJEORY AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING 

A scene from nature.— Business accumulates. 

matter of course and exercise his ingenuity as far as 
possible to prevent it. It may well be one of his sources 
of enjoyment to witness an improvement in the habits 
of his pupils in regard to system. 

These interruptions proceed from various causes, — 
such as soliciting leave to speak, or to go out ; asking 
for some assistance in learning lessons, or for leave to 
drink, or to stand by the fire ; requesting the teacher 
to mend pens, or to set copies ; disorderly conduct in 
pupils, making it necessary in his judgment to admin- 
ister reproof or j^unishment in the midst of other duties, 
— and sometimes the vociferous and impatient making 
of complaints by one scholar against another. 

How many times I have seen a teacher involved in 
indescribable perplexity while trying to perform the 
duty of instruction and to ^^get through^' in time. 
While hearing a grammar lesson, a scholar brings up 
his atlas to have some place pointed out which he had 
upon one trial failed to find. The teacher turning to 
look for the place is addressed with *^' Please mend my 
pen,'^ from another quarter. Having the knife in 
hand, as if sncli things were to be expected, the obliging 
teacher takes the pen, and holding it between his eyes 
and the atlas, endeavors to shape its nib and to discover 
the city at the same glance. '' Jane keeps a pinching 
me^" — vociferates a little girl who is seated behind the 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 377 



A crlsls.-A pall of water.— A juncture and a conjunction ! 



class. ^^ Jane, Jane," says the teacher, turning away 
from both the nib and the city, " Jane, come to me 
instantly." Jane with the guilty fingers thrust far into 
her mouth makes her way sidling towards the teacher. 
" May I go out ?"— says John, who is thinking only of 
his own convenience. '' No, no "—answers the teacher, 
a little pettishily, as if conscious that in a crisis like 
this a request simply to breathe more freely is scarcely 
justifiable. ''Please, sir, let me and Charles go out 
and get a pail of water." This is said by a little shrewd- 
looking, round-faced, light-haired boy who has learned 
how to select his time, and to place the emphasis upon 
the "please, sir '\ The teacher by this time being 
considerably fretted by such an accumulation of business 
0:1 his hands very naturally thinks of the refreshment 
contained in a pail of cool water, and very good- 
naturedly answers the little urchin in the affirmative, 
who most likely is by this time more than half way out 
of the door, so confident is he of success. Just at this 
juncture a considerate-looking miss in the class earn- 
estly appeals to the teacher to know if the word next 
but three to the last was not a common noiin, though 
called a conjunction I This reminds ihe teacher tliat 
several words have been parsed without his notice, and 
he asks the class to ^^stop there". Glancing at his 
watch he discovers that he has gone three minutes be- 



278 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A truce.— Sunshine again. 

yond the time for recess, and he relieves himself by 
saying, " Boys may go out." This grants a truce to all 
parties. The pen goes back unmended, the atlas with 
its sought city undiscovered ; John *^goes out^^ now by 
common law, taking to himself the credit of this happy 
release, as he asked only to remind the master that it 
was time for recess ; Jane takes both thumb and finger 
from her precious little mouth, and smiling seats her- 
self by the side of her late challenger, who is by this 
time more than half repentant of her own impatience ; 
the shrewd-looking urchin and his companion return 
with the refreshing pail of water, — the boys and girls 
gather round to obtain the first draught, while the 
little chubby-faced lad comes forward clothed in smiles 
with a cup filled with the cooling liquid on purpose for 
the master ; the boon is accepted, the perplexed brow 
becomes placid, and all is sunshine again. — This is not 
a very extravagant picture of the interruptions in a 
district school. Those who have been brought up in 
such a school will recognize the fidelity of the lihciiess 
as it has been drawn from nature. 

Now whoever has any knowledge of human nature 
aud of school teaching will at once see that this is all 
wrong. It is a law of our being that we can do well 
but one thing at a time. He who attempts more must 
do what he attempts but very imperfectly. There was 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 279 

Lancaster's motto.— System.— Teacliing deliglitfuL— When ? 

a great deal of wisdom embodied in that motto which 
used to be placed in the old Lancasterian schools : *^ A 

TIME FOR EVERY THING, AND EVERY THING IN ITS 

time/' It should be one of the mottoes of every 
teacher. In the construction of the plan or programme 
for the day's duties, great care should be taken to pro- 
vide for all these little things. If whispering is to be 
allowed at all in school let it come into one of the 
intervals between recitations. If assistance in getting 
lessons is to be asked and rendered, let it be done at a 
time assigned for the special purpose. As far as possi- 
ble, except in extreme cases, let the discipline be 
attended to at the time of general exercise, or some 
other period assigned to it, so that there shall not be a 
ludicrous mixture of punishments and instruction 
during the progress of a class exercise. 

It is pleasant to visit a school where everything '.s 
done and well done at its proper time. Teaching under 
such circumstances becomes a delightful employment. 
But where all is confusion and the teacher allows him- 
self by the accumulation of irregularities to be oppressed 
and perplexed, it is one of the most wearing and un- 
desirable vocations on earth. The teacher goes to his 
lodgings harassed with care, oppressed with a con- 
sciousness of the imperfection of his labors, and ex- 
hausted by the unnatural and unwarrantable tax 



280 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Reverse.— Recesses.— How often ?— One each session. 

imposed upon his mental faculties. He groans under 
the burden incident to his calling and longs to escape 
from it, never once dreaming, perhaps, that he has the 
power of relieving himself by the introduction of sys- 
tem, and thus changing his former hahel into a scene of 
quietness and order. 

SECTION III — RECESSES 

In speaking of the arrangements of a school, the sub- 
ject of recesses demands attention. It is the belief of 
many enlightened instructors that the confinement in 
most of our schools is still too protracted, and that 
more time devoted to relaxation would be profitable 
both to the physical and the mental constitution of our 
youth. Some have urged a recess of a few minutes 
every hour in order to afford opportunity for a change 
of position and a change of air. This could better be 
done in schools composed only of one sex, or where the 
accommodation of separate yards and play-grounds 
permits both sexes to take a recess at the same time. 
Where these accommodations are wanting, and one sex 
must wait while the other is out, the time required for 
two recesses in half a day for the whole school could 
scarcely be afforded. I am of the opinion, as our 
schools are at present composed, that one recess in the 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 381 

Ten minutes to each sex.— Separate playground. 

half day for each sex is all that can be allowed. The 
question then is, how can that one recess be made most 
conducive to the purposes for which it is designed ? 

1. As to its duratio7i. Ten minutes is the least time 
that should be thought of, if the children are to be kept 
closely confined to study during the remainder of the 
three hours' session ; that is, ten minutes for each sex. 
It would be a very desirable thing if our school-houses 
could be so furnished with separate play-grounds and 
separate out-door accommodations that both sexes 
could take recess at the same time. This would save 
much time to the district in the course of a term, audit 
would also give opportunity for thoroughly ventilating 
the room during recess, while it would afford the 
teacher opportunity to take the air, and overlook the 
sports of the children to some extent, — a matter of no 
small importance. 

Where these facilities are wanting, and the teacher 
must remain Avitliin to preside over the one half of the 
school while the others are out, he may still give ten 
minutes at least to each sex, contriving to employ 
profitably the tim_e within doors. He may reserve this 
time for settling such difficulties as may have arisen in 
the school ; he may administer reproofs, inflict his pun- 
ishments if any are necessary, or he may spend the 
time in giving assistance to the pupils, or in drawing 



282 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Teacher's work at recess.— Proper hour.— Young children. 

upon the blackboard for the advantage of the younger 
pupils as they come in. In a large school, where a 
longer recess is the more necessary on account of the 
bad air of the schoolroom, he will find the more duty 
to be done at this time ; so that in any event the time 
need not be lost, even if fifteen minutes be allowed to 
each sex. 

2. As to the projjer liour for recess. It was an old 
rule to have recess when " school was half do7ie." In- 
deed, this expression was often used as synonymous 
with recess in many districts twenty-five years ago. It 
is now generally thought better to have the recess occur 
later, perhaps when the school session is two-thirds 
past. It is found that children, accustomed to exercise 
all the morning, can better bear the confinement of the 
first two hours than they can that of the third, even 
though the recess immediately precedes the third. In a 
school the half-daily sessions of which are three hours, 
I should recommend that the recess be introduced so 
as to terminate at the close of the second hour. As 
far as possible it would be well to have all the pupils 
leave the room at the time recess is given them ; and 
as a general thing they should not ask leave to go out 
at any other time. A little system in this matter is as 
desirable as in any other, and it is quite as feasible. 

In a school composed partly of very young children 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 283 



Teachers fail in assigning lessons.— Not too long.— Wliy ? 



there is no difficulty in giving such children two re- 
cesses each half day. Nor is there any ohjection to 
such a course. It is more irksome to young children 
to bear confinement than to the adult ; especially as 
they cannot be expected to be constantly occupied. It 
will relieve the teacher very much to have the children 
go out of the room as soon as they become fatigued, 
and as it will promote their own health and happiness 
to go, it is very justifiable to grant them the privilege. 
This may properly and easily be provided for upon the 
Programme. 

SECTION IV — ASSIGNING LESSONS 

Many teachers fail in this department. Judging of 
the difficulty of the lesson by the ease with which they 
can acquire it, even in a text-book new to themselves, 
they not unfrequently assign more than can possibly be 
learned by the children. They forget that by long dis- 
cipline of mind, and by the aid of much previously 
acquired knowledge, the lesson becomes comparatively 
easy to them ; they forget, too, the toil a similar lesson 
cost them when they were children. Now the effect of 
poorly learning a lesson is most ruinous to the mind of 
a child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to think 
it a small thino- to fail at recitation. He loses his self- 



284 THEOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Not liOAV much, but how Avell.— Good habits of study. 

respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as a 
scholar. It is truly deplorable to see a child fail in a 
lesson with indifference. Besides, the attempt to ac- 
quire an unreasonable lesson induces a superficial habit 
of study, — a skimming over the surface of things. The 
child studies that he may live through the recitation ; 
not that he may learn and remember. He passes thus 
through a book and thinks himself wise while he is yet 
a fool, — a mistake that is no less common than fatal. 

The motto of the wise teacher should be : '' Not 
HOW MUCH, BUT HOW WELL.'' He should alwavs ask, 
is it possible that the child cmi master this lesson, and 
probable that he toill? It is better that a class should 
make but very slow progress for several weeks, if they 
but acquire the habit of careful study and a pride of 
good scholarship — a dread of failure, — than that they 
should ramble over a whole field, firing at random, 
missing oftener than they hit the mark, and acquiring 
a stupid indifference to their reputation as marksmen, 
and a prodigal disregard to their waste of ammunition, 
and their loss of the game. 

In assigning lessons the importance of good habits 
of study should be considered, and the lessons given 
accordingly. At the commencement of a term the les- 
sons sliould always be short, till the ability of the pupils 
is well understood, and their habits as good students 



SCHOOL AKRANGEMENTS ^85 



A failure is a fault.— Re views. -Frequent. —Why ? 



established. As the term progresses, they can be 
gradually lengthened as the capacity of the class will 
warrant or their own desire will demand. It is frequently 
judicious to consult the class about the length of the 
lessons ; though to be sure their judgment cannot always 
be relied on, for they are almost always ready to under- 
take more than they can well perform. Assigning, 
however, somewhat less than they propose, will take 
from them all excuse for failure. When the lesson is 
given a failure should be looked upon as a culpable 
dereliction of duty, as incompatible with a good con- 
science as it is with good scholarship. This high 
ground cannot be taken, however, unless the teacher 
has been very judicious in the assignment of the lesson. 

SECTION V — REVIEWS 

In the prosecution of study by any class of students 
frequent reviews are necessary. This is so, because the 
memory is very much aided by repetition and by asso- 
ciation. But further, the understanding is often very 
much improved by a review. Many of the sciences 
cannot be presented in independent parts nor can all 
the terms employed be fully appreciated till these parts 
are again viewed as a whole. Many things which were 
but dimly seen the first time they were passed over, be- 



5S6 THEORY AND PRACTiCE OF TEACHIiCCl 

Application ol principles to practical life. 

come perfectly clear to the mind when viewed afterwards 
in connection with what follows them. 

In conducting reviews regard must be had to the 
age and character of the pupils and to the branch pur- 
sued. In arithmetic, and indeed in mathematics gen- 
erally, where so much depends upon every link in the 
great chain, very frequent reviews are necessary. In- 
deed, almost daily it is profitable to call up some 
principle before gone over. In several branches, where 
the parts have a less intimate connection, as in 
geography, natural philosophy, and some others, the 
reviews may be at greater intervals. It would be well, 
I think, in every common school, to have a review-day 
once a week. This, besides the advantages already in- 
dicated, will lead the children to study for soniething 
heyond recitation. Nor is it enough, at the review, that 
the questions of the text-book be again proposed to the 
children. If this be all they will only exercise their 
memories. As far as possible the suhject should be 
called up and ajjplication of j^Tinciples io practical life 
should be dwelt upon. If this course is expected by 
the learners, they will tliinh during the week in order 
to anticipate the examination of the teacher; and 
this tliinhing is more profitable to them than the knowl- 
edge itself. 

It is always well, besides the periodical reviews, to 



SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS ^87 

A general review.— An exception. 

have a general review at the close of any particular 
study. This enables the teacher to detect any false 
conceptions which the j^upil h^s entertained during the 
first course. He can now present the subject as a whole, 
and view one part by the light of another. In natural 
philosophy, how mucli better the law of reflected mo- 
tion can be appreciated after the subject of optics has 
been studied, in which the doctrine of reflection in 
general has been fully discussed and illustrated. In 
physiology, what light is thrown upon the process of 
growth in the system by the subsequent chapters on 
absorption and secretion. How much clearer is the 
economy of respiration understood when viewed in 
connection with the circulation of the blood. A gen- 
eral review then is an enlightening process, and it is 
always profitable with perhaps with one exception. 
When it is instituted with reference to a public exam- 
ination, it is very doubtful whether the evil is not 
greater than the good. It then degenerates into an 
effort to appear well at a particular time ; it is again 
studying in order to recite ; and I look upon it as no 
small evil, that the mind should have any object in 
view which comes in between it and the graud desire to 
know, — to master the subject for its own sake, and not 
simply for the purpose of being able to talk about it on 
one great occasion. 



^88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Examinations.— Not to be talcen as indices of proficiency. 



SECTION VI — PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS 

It is now the usage in all oiir schools to have j)ublic 
examinations, — generally at the close of a term, or a 
portion of a term, — in order to test in some measure 
the industry and skill of the teacher and the proficiency 
of the pupils. I am hardly prepared to oppose this 
usage, because I am inclined to believe examinations 
are of some utility as a means of awakening an interest 
in the parents of the children ; perhajos they do some- 
thing to stimulate school-officers, and also to excite to 
greater effort during the term both the teacher and the 
pupils. Still, public examinations as frequently con- 
ducted are not without serious ohjections. 1. They 
certainly cannot be looked upon as criterions of the 
faithfulness or success of teachers. A man ^vith tact, 
and witliout honesty, may make his school appear to far 
greater advantage than a better man can make a better 
school appear. This has often happened. It is not the 
most faithful and thorough teaching that makes the 
show and attracts the applause at a public exhibition. 
It is the superficial, mechanical, 77?f??zor//er exercise that 
is most imposing. AVho has not seen a class that recited 
by note and m concert at a celebration win the largest 
approbation, when many of the individuals knew not 



SCHOOL ARRAKaEMENTS 289 



Encouraging deception.— Preparation to make a sliow. 

the import of the ivords they uttered. Names in 
geography have been thus '^said or sung^^, when the 
things signified were to the children as really tcrrm 
incognitcB as the fairy lands of Sinbad the Sailor. 

2. Nor can such exhibitions be claimed justly to in- 
dicate the proficiency of the pupils. Every experienced 
teacher knows that the best scholars often fail at a 
public examination, and the most indolent and super- 
ficial often distinguish themselves. The spectators not 
unfrequently in pointing out the talent of the school 
make the teacher smile at their blunders. 

3. They present a strong temptation to dishonesty on 
the part of the teacher. Since so much stress is laid 
upon the examination, and particularly in some regions 
upon the Celehration, where several schools are brought 
together to make a show for a few hours, it must be 
rather an uncommon man who will have sufficient prin- 
ciple to exhibit his school as it is, and refuse to make 
those efforts so very common to have it appear wliat it 
is not. The wish, expressed or implied, of the parents, 
and the ambition of the children all conspire to make 
the teacher yield to a usage so common. Consequently, 
several weeks will be spent to preimre the children to 
appear in public. During this time, they study not 
for improvement, not for future usefulness, but simply 
to mahe a shoiu at the public celebration. An un- 



290 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIK(J 

Sometimes useful.— When ?— Great motives. 

worthy and it n warrantable motive actuates them during 
all this process ;■ and at last, unless strangely benighted, 
they are conscious of holding up a false appearance to 
the world. Now, under such circumstances^ whatever 
of good is effected by way of enkindling a zeal in the 
parents is dearly purchased. The sacrifice of principle 
in a teacher — much more in the children — is a large 
price to pay for the applause of a few visitors, or even 
for an increase of interest among them in the cause of 
popular education. 

Examinations, however, which are less showy and 
which are of such a character as thoroughly to sift the 
teachings that have been given, and to thwart any in- 
genious efforts specially to prepare for them — examina- 
tions that look back to the general teaching of the 
term, or the year, and test the accuracy and thorough- 
ness of the instruction — are unquestionably very de- 
sirable and useful. To make them so in the highest 
sense, and to exempt them from an evil tendency upon 
the minds of the young themselves, the teacher should 
he strictly honest. Not a lesson should be given with 
sole reference to the exhibition at the close ; not an 
exercise should be omitted because the examination 
approaches. The good teacher should keep those great 
motives before the mind which look to future useful- 
ness and to the discharge of duty. The child should 



School ARiiAis^GEMEKTs 291 



Further caution.— Teacher should he honest. 



be taught that he is accountable for what he acquires, 
and what he may acquire, and not for what he may 
appear to have acquired ; and that this accountability 
is not confined to a single day, soon to pass and be for- 
gotten ; but it runs through all time and all eternity. 

I know not but the expectation of an examination 
may stimulate some to greater exertion and make them 
better scholars. If this be so it may be well enough ; 
and yet I should be slow to present such a motive to 
the mind of a child, because a special or secondary ac- 
countability always detracts from the general and 
chief. 

A strong reason, in addition to those already assigned, 
why special preparation should not be made for the 
examination, is, that where such preparation is ex- 
pected, the pupils become careless in their ordinary 
exercises. 

While, then, I think too much stress is at present 
placed upon showy exhibitions and celebrations, and 
that objections and dangers attend examinations, as 
frequently conducted, I would not recommend altogether 
their discontinuance. I would rather urge that the 
teacher, by his inflexible honesty, should make them 
fair representations of the actual condition of his school, 
without felying very much upon them as a means of 
stimulating the pupils to exertion ; that the pupils 



^92 THEORY AKD I^RACTICE OF TEACHING^ 

Restrictions and limitations.— Profitable examinations. 

should be made to feel that the results of their exertion 
through the term, rather than a few special efforts near 
its close, would be brought into review ; that no 
hypocrisy or management should ever be tolerated in 
order to win the applause of the multitude ; that no 
particular lessons should ever be assigned for the oc- 
casion ; that it should be remembered that the moral 
effect of an occasional failure at examination will be 
more salutary upon the school than unbroken success ; 
and that the children are irreparably injured when they 
are made in any way the willing instruments of false 
pretension. 

Under such circumstances examinations may be 
profitable to all concerned. If teacher and pupils have 
done well, they have the opportunity of showing it 
without violence to their own consciences. The em- 
ployers, and patrons too, have some means of forming 
a correct estimate of the value of their school ; and all 
parties may be encouraged and stimulated. But above 
all things, let the teacher be honest. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE teacher's RELATION TO THE PARENTS OF HIS 
PUPILS 

IN the choice of a clergyman, after estimating his 
moral and religious character and ascertaining the 
order of his pulpit talents, a third question remains to 
be answered, viz : — What are his qualifications as a 
pastor 9 How is he adapted to fulfil the various rela- 
tions of private friend and counsellor ; and in the 
family circle, in his intercourse with the aged and the 
young, how is he fitted to 

" Allure to brighter worlds and lead the way '" ? 

In that sacred profession every one knows that nearly 
as much good is to be done by private intercourse as in 
the public ministration. Many a heart can be reached 
by a friendly and informal conversation that would re- 
main unmoved by the most powerful eloquence from the 
pulpit. Besides, many are prepared to be profited in 
the public exercises by that intercourse in private which 
has opened their hearts, removed prejudice, and engen- 
dered a feeling of friendly interest in the preacher. The 
admonitions of the gospel thus have the double power of 
being truth, and truth uttered by the lips of a valued 

friend, 

(293) 



294 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Social qualities In a teacher.— He slioulcl call on the parents. 

It is to some extent thus with the school teacher. 
He may be A^ery learned and very apt to teach and yet 
fail of success in his district. Hence it is highly im- 
portant that he should possess and carefully cultivate 
those social qualities which will greatly increase his 
usefulness. The teacher should consider it a part of 
his duty whenever he enters a district to excite a deeper 
interest there among the patrons of the school than they 
have every before felt. He should not be satisfied till 
he has reached every mind connected with his charge 
in such a way that they will cheerfully co-operate with 
him and sustain his judicious efforts for good. Being 
imbued with a deep feeling of the importance of his 
work, he should let them see that he is alive to the in- 
terests of their children. To this end, — 

1. He slioulcl seeh frequent opportunities of inter- 
course with the parents. Though the advances toward 
this point, by the strict rules of etiquette, should be 
made by the parents themselves — (as by some it is ac- 
tually and seasonably done) — yet, as a general thing, 
taking the world as we find it, the teacher must lead the 
way. He must often introduce himself uninvited to 
the people among whom he dwells, calling at their 
homes in the spirit of his vocation, and conversing with 
them freely about his duty to their children and to 
fhemselves. Every parent of course will feel bound tp 



TEACHEK, PAKE^T, AND PUPIL 295 

Object of Ws calls.— He should explain his plans. 



be courteous and civil in his own house ; and, by such 
an interview, perhaps a difference of opinion, a preju- 
dice, or a suspicion may be removed, and the foundation 
of a mutual good understanding be laid, Avhich many 
little troubles can never shake. It may be very useful 
to have an interview with such parents as have been 
disturbed by some administration of discipline upon 
members of their families. Let me not be understood, 
however, to recommend that the teacher should ever go 
to the parent in a cringing, unmanly spirit. It would 
probably be far better that the parties should ever re- 
main entire strangers, than that their meeting should 
necessarily be an occasion of humiliating retraction on 
the part of the teacher. Neither should the parents 
ever be allowed to expect that the teacher always will 
as a matter of duty come to their confessional. But it 
is believed if there could be a meeting of the parties as 
men, as gentlemen, as Christians, as coadjutors for the 
child's welfare, it would always be attended with good 
results. 

2. He should he luilUng to explain all his plans to the 
parents of his pupils. If they had implicit confidence 
in him, and would readily and fully give him every 
facility for carrying forward all his designs without 
explanalion, then perhaps this direction might not be 
necessarj. But as- the world is he cannot expect spon- 



296 THEOliY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Encourage inquiry.— No mystery. 

taneous confidence. They wish to know his designs 
and it is best they should be informed of them by him- 
self. The best way for the teacher to interest them in 
the business of education will be freely to converse 
with them concerning the measures he intends to adopt. 
If his plans are judicious, he of course can show good 
reasons why they should be carried into effect ; and 
parents are generally willing to listen to reason, espec- 
ially when it is directed to the benefit of their own 
children. Many a parent upon the first announcement 
of a measui'e in school, has stoutly opposed it, who upon 
a little explanatory conversation with the teacher, 
would entertain a very different opinion, and ever after 
would be most ready to countenance and support it. 

It seems to me a teacher may safely encourage inquiry 
into all his movements in school. There is an old say- 
ing — in my opinion a mischievous one, — which enjoins 
it as a duty upon all, to ^^ tell no tales out of school ". I 
see no objection to the largest liberty in this matter. 
Why may not every thing be told, if told correctly ? 
Parents frequently entertain a suspicious spirit as to 
the movements of the teacher. Would not very much 
of this be done away if it was understood there was no 
mystery about the school ? The teacher who would 
thus invite inquiry would be very careful never to do 
anything which he would not be willing to have related 



TEACHER, PARENT, AND PUPIL 297 

Encourage parental visitation.— Begin witli mothers.— Be honest. 

to the 23arents, or even to be witnessed by them. I 
would have no objection, if it were possible, that walls 
of our schoolrooms, as you look inward, should be 
transparent, so that any individual unperceived might 
view with his own eyes the movements within. The 
consciousness of such an oversight would work a 
healthy influence upon those who have too long de- 
lighted in mystery. 

3. The teacher should encourage parents frequently to 
visit his school. There is almost everywhere too great 
backwardness on the part of parents to do this duty. 
The teacher should early invite them to come in. It is 
not enough that he do this in general terms. He may 
fix the time and arrange the party so that those who 
would assimilate should be brought together. It will 
frequently be wise to begin with the mothers, where 
visitation has been unusual. They will soon bring in 
the fathers. As often as they come they Avill be bene- 
fited. When such visits are made the teacher should 
not depart from his usual course of instruction on their 
account. Let all the recitations and explanations be 
attended to, all praises and reproofs, all rewards and pun- 
ishments be as faithfully and punctually dispensed as if 
no person were present. In other words, let the teacher 
faithfully exhibit the school just as it is, its lights and its 
shadows^ so that they may see all its workings and 



298 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

No false pretences.— Be frank and true with parents. 

understand all its trials as well as its encourage- 
ments. 

Such visitations under such circumstances it is be- 
lieved would ever be highly beneficial. The teacher^s 
difificnlties and cares would be better understood and 
his efforts to be useful appreciated. The hindrances 
thus seen to impede his progress would be promptly 
removed, and the teacher would receive more cordial 
sympathy and support. 

But if the teacher makes such visits the occasion 
for putting a false appearance upon the school ; 
if he takes to himself unusual airs, such as make 
him ridiculous in the eyes of his pupils, and even 
in his own estimation ; if he attempts to bring 
before the visitors his best classes, and to impress 
them with his own skill by showing off his best 
scholars, they will, sooner or later, discover his 
hypocrisy, and very likely despise him for an attempt 
to deceive them. 

4. 77^6 teacher should be franh in all his represen- 
tations to parents concerning their childre7i. This is a 
point upon which many teachers most lamentably err. 
In this as in every other case, 'Mionesty is the best 
policy." If an instructor informs a parent during the 
term that his son is making rapid progress, or as the 
phrase is — ^'^ doing very well "^ he excites in him high 



TEACHER, PARENT, AND PUPIL 299 

No evasion. 

expectations; and if at tiie end of the term it turns out 
otherwise, the parent with much justice may feel that 
ha has been injured, and may be expected to load him 
with censure instead of praise. Let a particular an- 
swer, and a true one, always be given to the inquiry — 
'• How does my child get along ?'' The parent has a 
right to know, and the teacher has no right to conceal 
the truth. Sometimes teachers, fearing the loss of a 
pupil, have used some indefinite expression, which, 
however, the doating parent is usually ready to interpret 
to his child's advantage. But sooner or later the truth 
will appear ; and when the teacher is once convicted of 
any misrepresentation in this particular, there is rarely 
any forgiveness for him. For this reason and for his 
own love of truth, for his own reputation and for the 
child's welfare, he should keep nothing back. He 
should tell the whole story plainly and frankly, — and 
the parent, if he is a gentleman, will thank him for his 
faithfulness to him ; and if he has any sense of justice 
he will be ready to cooperate with him for his child's 
improvement. At any rate such a course will ensure 
tne reward of a good conscience. 

The teacher, as I have before urged, should have 
the habits and manners of a gentleman. He should 
strive also to acquire the ability to converse in an 
easy and agreeable way, so that his society shall 



300 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Study the art of conversation.— Be modest.— "Out-door work." 

never be irksome. He in other words should be 
a man who does not require much entertaiiiing. 
Modesty withal is a great virtue m the teacher ; 
especially in his intercourse with the people of his 
district. Teachers, from their almost constant inter- 
course with their pupils, are apt to think their own 
opinions infallible ; and they sometimes commit the 
ridiculous error of treating others wiser than them- 
selves as children in knowledge. This infirmity in- 
cident to the profession should be carefully avoided ; 
and while the teacher should ever endeavor to make 
his conversation instructive, he should assume no airs 
of superior learning or infallible authority. He should 
remember the truth in human nature, that men are 
best pleased to learn without being reminded that they 
are learners. 

I have known some teachers who have sneered at 
what they have termed the ^'out-door work ^' here 
recommended. They have thrown themselves upon 
their dignity, and have declared that when they 
had done their duty within the schoolroom they had 
done all that could be expected, and that parents were 
bound to cooperate with them and sustain them. 
But after all we must take the world as we find it ; 
and since parents do not always feel interested as 
they should^ I hold it to be a part of the teacher's 



TEACHER, PARENT, AND PUPIL SOI 

Its result. 

duty to excite their interest and to win them to 
his aid by all the proper means in his power. In doing 
this he will in the most effectual way secure the progress 
of his school, and at Iho same time advance his own 
personal improvemuiic. 



CHAPTEK XII 
teacher's care of his health 

No employment is more wearing to the constitu- 
tion than the business of teaching. So many 
men falter in this employment from ill health, and so 
many are deterred from entering it because they have 
witnessed the early decay and premature old age of 
those who have before pursued it ; so many are still 
engaged in it who almost literally -'drag tlieir slow 
length along,"' groaning under complicated forms of 
disease and loss of spirits wliich tiiey know not how to 
tolerate or cure, — that it has become a serious inquiry 
among the more intelligent of the profession, " Cannot 
something be known and practised on this subject, 
which shall remove the evils complained of?'' Is it 
absolutely necessary that teachers shall be dyspeptics 
and invalids ? Must devotion to a calling so useful be 
attended with a penalty so dreadful ? 

A careful survey of the facts by more than one 
philanthropist, has led to the conclusion that the loss 
of health is not a necessary attendant upon the teacher 
of the young. It is believed, indeed, that the confine- 
ment from the air and sunlight, and the engrossing 
^_ (30«) 



'teacher'^ 6AEiJ Of ills iiEALTif SoS 



Laws ol healtli should be studied.— Effect of a change of employment. 



nature of his pursuits have a strong tendency to bring 
on an irritability of the nervous system, a depression of 
spirits, and a prostration of the digestive functions ; 
but it is also believed that by following strictly and 
systematically the known laws of health, this tendency 
may be successfully resisted, and the teacher's life and 
usefulness very much prolonged. The importance of 
the subject and a desire to render this volume as useful 
as possible, have induced me to ask leave to transfer to 
its pages, with slight abbreviation, the very judicious 
and carefully written chapter on ^^ Health — Exercise — 
Diet," contained in the ^^ School and the Schoolmas- 
ter," from the gifted pen of George B. Emerson, Esq., 
of Boston, — one of the most enlightened educators of 
the present age. 

HEALTH — EXERCISE — DIET 

'^ The teacher should have perfect health. It may 
seem almost superfluous to dwell here upon what is 
admitted to be so essential to all persons ; but it be- 
comes necessary from the fact that nearly all those who 
engage in teaching leave other and more active employ- 
ments to enter upon their new calling. By this change 
and by the substitution of a more sedentary life within- 
doors for a life of activity abroad, the whole habit of 



304 l^IIEOHY AND PRACriCii OF TEACHING 

Exercise.— Teacher specially needs it.— Walking.— How ? 

the body is changed, and the health will inevitably 
suffer unless 23recautions be taken which have never be- 
fore been necessary. To all such persons — to all, es- 
pecially, who are entering upon the work of teaching 
with a view of making it their occupation through life, 
a knowledge of the laws of health is of the utmost im- 
portance, and to such this chapter is addressed. I 
shall speak of tliese laws briefly under the heads of 
Exercise, Air, Sleep, Food, and Dress. 

^^ Exercise. — So intimate is the connection between 
the various parts of our compound nature that the 
faculties of the mind cannot be naturally, fully, and 
effectually exercised, without the health of the body. 
And the first law of health is that which imposes the 
necessity of exercise. 

''The teacher cannot be well without exercise and 
usually a great deal of it. No other pursuit requires so 
much, — no other is so exhausting to the nerves ; and 
exercise, air, cheerfulness, and sunshine, are necessary 
to keep them iu health. Most other pursuits give 
exercise of body, sunshine, and air, in the very per- 
formance of the duties that belong to them. This 
shuts us up from all. 

'' One of the best as one of the most natural modes of 
exercise is icalhing. To give all the good effects of 
which it is susceptible, a walk must be taken either in 



teacher's cahr op his health 305 



President Ilitclicock.— Kidin"- on horseback. 



pleasant company, or if alone, vvitli pleasant thoughts ; 
or still better, with some agreeable end in view, such as 
gathering plants or minerals, or observing other natural 
objects. Many a broken constitution has been built up, 
and many a valuable life saved and prolonged by such a 
love of some branch of natural history as has led to 
snatch every opportunity for a walk with the interest of 
a delightful study, 

' Where living tilings, and things inanimate 
Do speak, at Heaven's command, to eye and ear.' 

The distinguished geologist of Massachusetts, President 
Hitchcock, was once when teacher of a school reduced 
to so low a state by disease of the nerves, which took 
the ugly shape of dyspepsia, that he seemed to be hurry- 
ing rapidly towards the grave. Fortunately he became 
interested in mineralogy, and this gave him a strong 
motive to spend all his leisure time in the open air and 
to take long circuits in every direction. He forgot 
that he was pursuing health in the deeper interest of 
science; and thus aided by some other changes in his 
habits, but not in his pursuits, he gradually recovered 
the perfect health which has enabled him to do so much 
for science and for the honor of his native State. 

*' Riding on liorsebach is one of the best modes of 
exercise possible for a sedentary person. It leads to an 
erect posture, throws open the chest, gives a fuller 



3-06 THEORY AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING 

Garden.— Farm labor.— Rowing. 

breathings and exercises the muscles of the arms 
and upper part of the frame. * * * jj-^ -^veak- 
iiess of tlie digestive organs its efficacy is remark- 
able. * * * 

'' A garden furnishes many excellent forms of exercise, 
and the numerous labors of a far7)i would give every 
variety if the teacher could be in a situation to avail 
himself of them. This is not often the case. When 
accessible, the rake, the pitchfork, moderately used, 
cannot be too highly recommended. A garden is 
witliin the reach of most teachers in the country. It 
has the advantage of supplying exercise suited to every 
degree of strength, and of being filled with objects 
gratifying to the eye and the taste. * * * rpj^^ 
flower-garden and shrubbery commend themselves to 
the female teacher. To derive every advantage from 
them she must be willing to follow the example often 
set by the ladies of England, and use the hoe, the rake, 
the pruning-hook, and the grafting knife, with her own 
hands. 

'' Roiving, when practicable, is a most healthful 
exercise. It gives play to every muscle and bone in 
the frame. * ♦ * AYhen the river is frozen skating 
may take the place of rowing ; and it is an excellent 
substitute. * * * Driving a chaise or a sleigh 
is a healthful exercise, if sufficient precaution be used 



lEACHEll'S CAilE OE tllS HEALXil 'SOl 



Sawing- and splitting wood. -Warren Colburn.-In the morning. 



to giuird against the current Avhicli is always felt as 
it is i)rodnced by the motion of the vehicle, even in 
still air. 

" Sawing and s2)UfU7ig wood form a valuable exer- 
cise, particularly important for those who have left an 
active life for the occupation of teaching. 

"' Exercise should be taken in the early part of the 
day. Warren Colburn, the author of the Arithmetic, 
whose sagacity in common things was as remarkable as 
his genius for numbers, used to say that half an 
hour's walk before breakfast did him as much good as 
an hour's after. Be an early riser. The air of morn- 
ing is more bracing and invigorating ; the sights and 
sounds and odors of morning are more refreshing. A 
life's experience in teaching declares the morning 
best. * * * 

^•Exercise must always be taken, if possible, in the 
open air. Air is as essential as exercise, and often, in 
warm weather particularly, more so. They belong to- 
n-other. The blood flows not as it should, it fails to 
n-ivc fresh life to the brain if we breathe not fresh air 
enough. The spirits cannot enjoy the serene cheer- 
fulness which the teacher needs if he breathe not fresh 
air enough. The brain cannot perform its functions ; 
thought cannot be quick, vigorous, and healthy, with- 
out ample supplies of air. Much of the right moral 



^08 MEonY akd Practice of teacHikg 

In the light.— Cleanliness.— Water. 

tone of habitual kindliness and thankful reverence de- 
pends on the air of heaven. 

'*' Exercise must be taken in the light ; and if it may 
be, in the sunshine. Who has not felt the benignant 
influence of sunshine ? The sun^s light seems almost 
as essential to our well-being as his heat or the air we 
breathe. It has a great effect on the nerves. A dis- 
tinguished physician of great experience. Dr. J. C. 
Warren of Boston, tells me that he almost uniformly 
finds diseases that affect the nerves exasperated by the 
darkness of night, and mitigated by the coming on of 
day. All plants growing in the air lose their strengtli 
and color when excluded from light. So in a great 
degree does man. They lose their fine and delicate 
qualities and the preciousness of their juices. Man 
loses the glow of his spirits and the warmth and natural 
play of his finer feelings. * * * 

^^Next to air and light, water is the most abundant 
element in nature. It can hardly be requisite to enjoin 
upon the teacher the freest use of it. The most scru- 
pulous cleanliness is necessary, not only on his own 
account, but that he may be able always to insist upon 
it, with authority, in his pupils. The healthy state of 
the nerves and of the functions of digestion depends 
in so great a degree on the cleanliness of the skin that 
its importance can hardly be overstated. * * * 



teacher's care of his health 309 

Sleep.— Six or eig-lit hours.— Diet.— Simple food. 

'•Sleep. — No more fatal mistake in regard to bis 
constitution can be made by a young person given to 
study tbaii that of supposing that Xature can be cheated 
of the sleep necessary to restore its exhausted or 
strengthen its weakened powers. From six to eight 
hours of sleep are indispensable ; and with young per- 
sons, oftener eight, or more than s>x. It is essential to 
the health of the body, and still more to that of the 
mind. It acts directly on the nervous system ; and 
irritability, or what is called 7iervousness, is the conse- 
quence of its loss. This, bad in any person, is worse 
in the teacher than in any one else. It is an unfailing 
source of unhappiness to himself and to all his school. 
He would be unwise to subject himself to the conse- 
quences of the loss of sleep ; he has no right to subject 
others. * * * 

'•Diet. — To no person is an attention to diet more 
imj)ortant than to the teacher. For his own guidance, 
and that lie may be able to give proper instructions in 
regard to this subject to his pupils, the conclusions of 
experience, or what we may consider the laws of diet, 
should be familiar to him. Some of these are the fol- 
lowing : 

^'1. Food should be simple ; not of too little nor too 
great variety. The structure of the teeth, resembling 
at once those of animals that naturally subsist on flesh. 



310 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

Extremes in kind and quantity.— True medium.— Taken at intervals. 

and qf animals that take only vegetable food, and the 
character and length of the digestive organs, holding a 
medium between the average of these two classes, indi- 
cate that a variety of food, animal and vegetable, is 
natural to man, and in most cases probably necessary. 
The tendency in most parts of this country, from the 
great abundance of the necessaries of life, is to go to 
excess in the consumption of food, particularly of ani- 
mal food. The striking evils of this course have led 
many to the opposite extreme — to renounce meats en- 
tirely. Experience of the evils of this course also has 
in most places brought men back to the safe medium. 
'No person needs to be more careful in regard to the 
quality and nature of his food than the teacher, as his 
exclusion from air for a great part of the day leaves 
him in an unfit condition to digest unwholesome food, 
while the constant use of his lungs renders his appetite 
unnaturally great or destroys it altogether. Animal 
food seems to be necessary, but not in great quantities ; 
not oftener, usually, than once a day. * * * i^ 
winter the food should be nourishing, and may be more 
abundant ; in summer, less nutritious, less of animal 
origin, and in more moderate quantity. 

''2. Food should be taken at sufficiently distant in- 
tervals. * * * The operation of digestion is not 
completed ordinarily in less than four hours. Food 



teacher's care of his health 311 



Moderate quantity.— Avoid /««. 



should not be taken at shorter intervals than this, and 
intervals of five or six hours are better, as they leave 
the stomach some time to rest. 

^'3. It should be taken in moderate quantity. In 
the activity of common life excess is less to be dreaded 
than with the sedentary habits and wearying pursuits 
of the teacher. * * * The exhaustion of teaching 
is that of the nervous power, and would seem to call for 
hours of quiet and freedom from care, with cheerful 
conversation and the refreshment of air and gentle 
exercise. Probably all the kinds of food in general use 
are wholesome when partaken of moderately. Those 
who, from choice or compulsion, pass from an active to 
a sedentary life, should at the same time restrict them- 
selves to one-half their accustomed quantity of food. 

^^4. As a general rule fat should be avoided. * * 
None but a person who uses a great deal of most active 
exercise, or is much exposed to cold, can long bear its 
use with impunity. If taken, fat in a solid form is less 
injurious than liquid fat. 

'' 5. Fruit may be eaten with the recollection of the 
proverb of fruit-producing countries : ^t is gold in the 
morning, silver at noon, and lead at night.' Ripe fruit 
in its season is wholesome, and preferable for a person 
of sedentary habits to more nourishing and exciting 
food. But it should be a substitute for other food, not 



312 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Fruit.— Drink water.— At meals.— Dress. 

ail addition. A bad practice, common in some places, 
of eating fruit, especially the indigestible dried fruits, 
raisins, and nuts, in the evening, should be avoided by 
the teacher. He must have quiet and uninterrupted 
sleep, and early hours, to be patient, gentle, and cheer- 
ful in school. 

'' G. The drink of a sedentary person should be chiefly 
water, and that in small quantities and only at meals. 
The intelligent Arab of the desert drinks not during 
the heat of the day. He sees that watering a plant in 
the sunshine makes it wither ; and he feels in himself 
an analogous effect from the use of water. There are 
few lessons in regard to diet so important to be incul- 
cated as this : ^ Drink not between meal-s.'' 

" 7. The last rule to be observed is that no un- 
necessary exertion of mind or body should be used 
immediately after a meal. If a walk must be taken it 
should rather be a leisurely stroll than a hurried walk. 

'^ Dress. — The teacher should be no sloven. He 
should dress well, not over nicely, not extravagantly ; 
neatly, for neatness he must teach by example as well 
as by jirecept ; and warmly, for so many hours of the 
day shut in a warm room will make him unusually 
sensitive to cold. The golden rule of health should 
never be forgotten : ' Keep the head cool, the feet 
warm, and the body free.' The dress of the feet is 



teacher's cake of his health 313 

Clieerfulness.— Cause of low spirits. 

particularly important. Coldness or dampness of the 
feet causes headache, weakness and inflammation of the 
eyes, coughs, consumptions, and sometimes fevers. A 
headache is often cured by sitting with the feet long 
near a fire. Keeping the feet warm and dry alleviates 
the common affections of the eyes, repels a coming 
fever, prevents or quiets coughs, and serves as one of 
the surest safeguards against consumption. Many of 
our most sensible physicians trace the prevalence of 
consumption in northern states not to our climate but 
to the almost universal custom of wearing insufficient 
clothing, especially on the feet. 

*^ There is another subject intimately connected with 
health, which has been alluded to, but which ought, 
from its importance, to receive more than a passing 
remark. It is cheerfulness. This should be one of the 
ends and measures of health. It ought to be considered 
the natural condition of a healthy mind ; he who is not 
cheerful is not in health. If he has not some manifest 
moral cause of melancholy, there must be something 
wrong in the body or in the action of the powers of the 
mind. 

^•'A common cause of low spirits in a teacher is 
anxiety in regard to the well-doing of his pupils. This 
he must feel ; but he must endeavor, as far as possible, 
to banish it from his hours of relaxation. He must 



314 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A liome.— Sociality.— Music. 

leave it behind him when he turns from the school- 
house door. To prevent its haunting him he must seek 
pleasant society. He must forget it among the endear- 
ments of home, the cheerful faces and kind voices of 
friends. This is the best of all resources, and happy 
is the man who has a pleasant home, in the bosom of 
which he may rest from labor and from care. If he 
be among strangers he must endeavor to find or make 
friends to supply the place of home. He must seek 
the company of the parents and friends of his pupils, 
not only that he may not be oppressed by the loneliness 
of his situation, but that he may better understand the 
character of his pupils and the influences to which 
they are subjected. The exercise of the social affec- 
tions is essential to the healthy condition of a well-con- 
stituted mind. Often he will find good friends and 
pleasant companions among his pupils. Difference of 
years disappears before kindliness of feeling, and sym- 
pathy may exist between those most remote in age, and 
pursuit, and cultivation. 

****** 

*' A delightful but somewhat dangerous recreation is 
offered by music ; delightful, as always soothing to the 
wearied mind ; but dangerous, because liable to take to 
itself too much time. It would be desirable if every 
instructor could himself sing or play. If he cannot, let 



TEACHEKS CAKE OF HIS HEALTH 315 

A pernicious habit.— "Comforter." 

liim listen to songs or cheerful music from voice or in- 
strument, or to the notes of birds. 

" ' I'm sick of noise and care, and now mine ear 
Longs for some air of peace.'" 



To the foregoing excellent remarks I could scarcely 
wish to add anything, save to call attention to that 
pernicious habit among both clergymen and teachers 
of dressing the neck too warmly whenever they go into 
the open air. There seems to have obtained an impres- 
sion that those who have occasion to sjpeah often should 
be peculiarly careful to guard their throats from the 
cold. Hence many are seen in a winter's day with a 
collar of fur, or a woollen *^ comforter," or at least a 
silk handkerchief of extraordinary dimensions around 
their necks, and often extending above their mouths 
and nostrils. If they have occasion to step out but for 
a moment, they are still subject to the slavery of put- 
ting on this unnatural encumbrance. 

Now I believe that this extra covering for the neck, 
instead of preventing disease of the throat and lungs, 
is one of the most fruitful sources of such disease. 
These parts being thus thickly covered during exercise 
become very Avarm, and an excessive local perspira- 
tion is excited ; and the dampness of the throat 
is much increased if the coverinsr extends above 



316 THEOllY ANJJ PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Broncliitis. —Experience. 

the mouth and nose, thus precluding the escape of 
the exhalations from the lungs. When, therefore, 
this covering is removed, even within-doors, a very 
rapid evaporation takes place, and a severe cold is 
the consequence. In this way a cold is renewed every 
day, and hoarseness of the throat and irritation of 
the ]ungs are the necessary result. Very soon the 
clergyman or teacher breaks down with the IronchitiSi 
or the ''lung conqjlaint", and is obliged for a season 
at least to suspend his labors. This difficulty is 
very much enhanced if the ordinary neck-dress is a 
stiff stock, which, standing off from the neck, allows 
the ingress of the cold air as soon as the outer cover- 
ing is removed. 

Having suffered myself very severely from this cause, 
and having seen hundreds of cases in others, I was de- 
sirous to bear the testimony of my experience against 
the practice, — and to suggest to all who have occasion 
to speak long and often that the simplest covering for 
the neck is the best. A very light cravat is all that is 
necessary. If the ordinary cravat be too thick and too 
warm, as the large-sized white cravats so fashionable 
with the clergy usually are, during the exercise of 
speaking an unnatural flow of blood to the parts will 
be induced, which, after the exercise ceases, will be fol- 
lowed by debility and prostration. A cold is then very 



TEACHER^S CARE OF HIS HEALTIT oil 



SirachlUng tlie neck. 



readily taken, and disease follows. I am confident from 
my own experience and immediate observation, that this 
unnatural siuaddling of the neck is one of the most 
fruitful causes of disease of the lungs and throat that 
can be meutioued. 



CHAPTER XIII 
teacher's relation^ to his profession 

IT has long been the opinion of the best minds in our 
country as well as in the most enlightened countries 
of Europe, that teaching should be a profession. It has 
been alleged, and with much justice, that this calling, 
which demands for its successful exercise the best of 
talents, the most persevering energy, and tlie largest 
share of self-denial, has never attained an appreciation 
in the public mind at all commensurate with its im- 
portance. It has by no means received the emolument, 
either of money or honor, which strict justice would 
award in any other department to the talents and exer- 
tions required for this. This having been so long the 
condition of things, much of the best talent has been 
attracted at once to the other professions ; or if exer- 
cised awhile in this, the temptation of more lucrative 
reward, or of more speedy if not more lasting honor, 
has soon diverted it from teaching, where so little of 
either can be realized, to engage in some other depart- 
ment of higher promise. So true is this that scarcely 
a man can be found, having attained to any considerable 

eminence as a teacher, who has not been several times 

(318) 



319 

Some noble souls.— Some small men.— Two evils. 

solicited — and perhaps strongly tempted — to engage in 
some more lucrative employment ; and while there 
have always been some strong men wlio have preferred 
teaching to any other calling, — men who would do honor 
to any profession, and who, while exercising this, have 
found that highest of all rewards, the consciousness of 
being useful to others, — still it must be confessed that 
teachers have too often been of just that class which a 
knowledge of the circumstances might lead us to 
predict would engage in teaching; men of capacity 
too limited for the other professions, of a tempera- 
ment too sluggish to engage in the labors of active 
employment, of manners too rude to be tolerated 
except in the society of children (!), and some- 
times of a morality so pernicious as to make them 
the unfailing contaminators of the young whenever 
permitted — not to teach — but to '^ keep school ". Thus 
two great evils have been mutually strengthening 
each other. The difference of the employers to the 
importance of good teachers, and their parsimony in 
meting out the rewards of teaching, have called into 
the field large numbers, in the strictest sense, un- 
worthy of all reward ; while this very unworthiness of 
the teachers has been made the excuse for further 
indifference, and if possible for greater meanness on 
the part of employers. Such has been the state of the 



320 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHlisG 

Educational millennium.— How ushered in ?— Different views. 

ciisc for many years past, and such is to a great extent 
the fact at present. 

It has been the ardent wish of many philanthropists 
that this deplorable state of affairs should be exchanged 
for a better. Hence they have urged that teaching 
should be constituted a profession ; that none should 
enter this profession but those who are thoroughly 
qualified to discharge the high trust ; and, as a conse- 
quence, that the people should more liberally reward 
and honor those who are thus qualified and employed. 
This would indeed be a very desirable change ; it would 
be the educational millennium of the world. For such 
a period we all may well devoutly pray. 

But how shall this glorious age — not yet arrived — be 
ushered in ? By whose agency, and by what happy 
instrumentality must its approach be hastened ? Here, 
as in all great enterprises, there is some difference of 
opinion. Some have urged that the establishment of 
normal schools and other seminaries for the better 
education of teachers, and the institution of a more 
vigilant system of supervision, by which our schools 
should be effectually guarded against the intrusion of 
the ignorant and inefficient teacher, are all that is 
necessary to bring in this brighter day. Others have 
zealously urged that such preparation and such super- 
vision are entirely superfluous and premature in the 



TEACHER^S RELATION" TO HIS PROFESSION 321 
Truth between the extremes.— A mutual evil, and a mutual remedy. 

present state of the public mind. Hiey say that the 
public must first become more liberal in its appropria- 
tions for schools ; it must at once double the amount it 
has been accustomed to pay to teachers, and thus secure 
without further trouble the best talent to this vocation. 
To this the former class reply that the public has sel- 
dom been known to raise its price so long as its wants 
could be supplied at the present rates. They say that 
the last century has afforded ample opportunity for the 
exhibition of this voluntary generosity of the public, 
and yet we still wait to see this anomaly in human 
prudence, of offering in advance to pay double the price 
for the same thing ; for until better teachers are raised 
up, it must be an advance upon the present stock. So 
there is a division among them, ^^for some cry one 
thing and some another." 

Now I believe in this case as in most others, the truth 
lies between the extremes. As the evil complained of 
is a mutual one, as has already been shown, — that is, an 
illiberal public has tolerated incompetent teachers, and 
the incompetence of teachers has enhanced in turn the 
parsimony of the public, — so the remedy must be a 
mutual one ; the public must be enlightened and teach- 
ers must be improved ; the pay of teachers must be 
raised, but there must be also something to warrant the 
higher rate. Nor is it easy to determine which shall 



522 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Teacher's duty. 

begin first. We can hardly expect the people to pay 
more till they find an article worth more ; nor, on the 
other hand, can we expect the teachers to incur any 
considerahle outlay to imj^rove themselves until better 
encouragement shall be held out to them by their em- 
ployers. The two must generally proceed together. 
Just as in the descending scale there was a mutual 
downward tendency, so here, better service will demand 
better pay, and in turn the liberality of employers will 
stimulate the employed to still higher attainments in 
knowledge and greater exertions in their labors. 

In this condition of things the question recurs. What 
is the duty of teachers in relation to their calling ? I 
answer, they are bound to do what they can to elevate 
it. Lord Bacon said, '' Every man owes a debt to his 
profession." Teachers being supposed to be more intel- 
ligent than the mass of the community may justly take 
the lead in the work of progress. They should as a 
matter of duty take hold of this work, — a work of sac- 
rifice and self-denial as it will be at least for some time, 
— and heartily do what they can to magnify their office 
and make it honorable. In the meantime they may do 
what they can to arouse the people to a sense of their 
duty. The more enlightened are to some extent with 
them already. The press, the pulpit, the legislative 
assemblies, all proclaim that something must be done. 



l-EACHEli's KELATION TO HIS PROFESSIOjq^ '6'2'6 

The encouragements.— Self-improvement.— Wliy important. 

All admit the faithful teacher has not been duly re- 
warded^ and some are found who are willing to do some- 
thing for the improvement both of the mind and 
condition of the teacher. This is encouraging ; and 
while we rejoice at the few gleams of light that betoken 
our dawning, let us inquire for a little space how we 
can hasten the ^^ coming in of the perfect day^\ 

SECTION I — SELF-CULTURE 

The teacher should labor diligently to improve himself. 
This is a duty incumbent on all persons, but particu- 
larly upon the teacher. The very nature of his em- 
ployment demands that his mind should be frequently 
replenished from the storehouses of knowledge. To 
interest children in their studies, how necessary is it 
that the teacher's mind should be thoroughly furnished 
with the richest thoughts of the wise ; to inspire them 
with a desire to learn, how important that he should be 
a living example of the advantage and enjoyment which 
learning alone can bestow ; to strew the path of knowl- 
edge with flowers, and thus make it the path of pleas- 
antness, how desirable that he should abound wath the 
aptest illustrations drawn from all that is wonderful and 
curious in nature and art ; to awaken the young mind 
to a consciousness of its capacities, its wants, its respon- 
sibilities, how thoroughly should he know all the work- 



324: THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Example.— Temptations to self -neglect. 

ings of the human soul, — how wisely and carefully 
should he touch the springs of action, — how judiciously 
should he call to his aid the conscience and the religions 
feelings ! 

Besides, let it be remembered that in this as in other 
things, the teacher's exa7nple is of great importance. 
The young will be very likely to judge of the impor- 
tance of their own improvement by the estimate the 
teacher practically places upon his ; nor can he with 
any good grace press his pupils to exertion while they 
see that he makes none whatever himself. 

There is great danger in the midst of the confine- 
ment and fatigue of the schoolroom, and the pressure 
of anxiety and care out of school, that the teacher will 
yield to the temptations of his position and fall into 
habits of indolence as to his own improvement. Com- 
pelled, as he often is, to labor at great disadvantage, 
by reason of a small and poorly furnished schoolroom ; 
confined through the day from the sunshine and the 
fresh breeze ; subjected to a constant pressure of duty 
amid untold trials of his patience, arising from the law 
that impels children to be active as well as inconsider- 
ate ; required to concentrate his powers upon the double 
duty of governing and teaching at the same instant, and 
all through the session, — it is not strange when the 
hour of release comes that he should seek rest or recrea- 



teacher's RELATIOIT to his PROFESSIOIT 325 



stagnation accounted for. -The teaclier has time.— Illustrated. 



tion at the nearest point, even to the neglect of his own 
mental or moral culture. I am of the opinion that this 
accounts for the fact that so many persons enter the 
work of instruction, and continue in it for a longer or 
shorter period without making the slightest progress 
either in the art of teaching or in their own intellectual 
.growth. Their first school indeed is often their best. 
This tendency or temptation incident to the calling it 
is the teacher's duty constantly and manfully to resist. 
He can do it. 

1. He has the time to do it. He is usually required 
to spend but six hours in the day in the schoolroom. 
Suppose he add two hours more for the purpose of 
looking over his lessons and devising plans for improv- 
ing his school,— he will still have sixteen hours for 
sleep, exercise, recreation, and improvement. Eight 
hours are sufficient for sleep, especially for a sedentary 
man, (some say less,) and four will provide for meals, 
exercise, and recreation. Four still remain for improve- 
ment. Any teacher who is systematic and economical 
in the use of his time can reserve for the purpose of his 
own improvement four hours in every ttuenty-four, 
and this without the slightest detriment to his school 
duties or to his health. To be sure he must lead a reg- 
ular life. He must have a plan and systematically 
follow it, He must be jmnctual at his school, at his 



326 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



Punctuality in all things.— Immediate reward.— Proof. 

meals, at his exercise or recreation, at his hour of re- 
tiring and rising, and at his studies. Nor should he 
ordinarily devote more time than I have mentioned 
directly to his school. He should labor with his whole 
soul while he does work, and he will the more heartily 
do this if he has had time to think of something else 
during the season of respite from labor. It is a great 
mistake that teachers make when they think they shall 
be more successful by devoting all their thoughts to their 
schools. Very soon the school comes to occupy their 
sleeping as well as waking hours, and troublesome dreams 
disturb the repose of night. Such 7nen must soon luear out. 

But according to the laws of our nature, by a change 
of occupation, the jaded faculties find rest. By taking 
up some new subject of inquiry the intellect is relieved 
from the sense of fatigue which before oppressed it, the 
thoughts play freely again, the animation returns, the 
eye kindles, and the mind expands. 

2. Such lahor finds immediate reiuard. The con- 
sciousness of groivth is no small thing towards encour- 
aging the teacher. He feels that he is no longer 
violating his nature by allowing himself to stagnate. 
Then he will find every day that he can apply the 
newly-acquired truth to the illustration of some princi- 
ple he is attempting to teach. He has encouraging and 
immediate proof that he is a better teacher, and that h^ 



teacher's RELATIOJ^r TO HIS PROFESSION 327 



How to Improve.— A course of professional reading.— T lie books. 

has made himself so by timely exertion. He is tlius 
again stimulated to rise above those temptations before 
described, — this immediate availability of his acquire- 
ments being vouchsafed to the teacher, as it is not to 
most men, in order to prompt him to stem the current 
which resists his progress. 

And now, if I have shown that a teacher is bound to 
improve himself, both from a regard to his own well- 
being, and the influence of his example upon others, — 
and if I have also shown that he can improve himself, 
I may be indulged in making a few suggestions as to 
the manner of his doing it. 

1. He sliould have a course of professional reading. 
It will do much for his improvement to read the works 
of those who have written on the subject of education 
and the art of teaching. If possible he should collect 
and possess a small educational library. It will be of 
great service to him to be able to read more than once 
such suggestions as are abundantly contained in the 
^^ Teacher's Manual," by Palmer; the ^^ School and 
Schoolmaster,'' by Potter and Emerson ; the ^•'Teacher/' 
by Abbott; the ^^ Teacher Taught," by Davis ; ^^ Lec- 
tures on Schoolkeeping," by Hall ; '^ The Common 
School Journal," ''Secretary's Reports," and ''Lec- 
tures," by Horace Mann ; the " Connecticut Common 
School Journal," and "Journal of the Rhode Island 



338 THEORY AN^D PRACTICE OF TEACHII^^G 

A course of general study.— One thing at a time. 

Institute/^ by H. Barnard; the ''^District School 
Journal," of Xew York, by Francis D wight and others ; 
the " Lectures of the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion ; " the '' Schoolmaster's Friend/' by T. Dwight ; 
the '^District School/' by J. Orville Taylor; the 
*' Teacher's Advocate/' by Cooper ; the writings, if 
they can be obtained, of Wyse, of Cousin, of Lalor, of 
Lord Brougham on Education, together with such 
other works as are known to contain sound and practi- 
cal views. It is not to be expected that every teacher 
will possess all these, or that he will read them all in 
a single term. But it is well to hold converse with 
other minds, and to have it in our power to review their 
best thoughts whenever our own need refreshing. I 
have given a somewhat extended list of books because 
the inquiry is now so often made by teachers what they 
shall read. 

2. By 2JU7'suing systematically a course of general 
study. Many teachers Avho have a desire to improve 
themselves still fritter away their time upon little mis- 
cellaneous matters, without making real progress. It 
is well in this to have a plan. Let some one study, — • 
it may be geology, or astronomy, or chemistry, or 
botany, or the pure mathematics, — let some one study 
receive constant attention till no mean attainments have 
been made in it. By taking one thing at a time and 



TEACHERS RELAT10:N^ TO HIS PROFESSION^ 329 

A journal or common-place book.— Why ? 

diligently pursuing it^ at the end of a term the teacher 
feels that he has something to show for his labor, — 
and he is by the advance already made prepared 
to take tlie next and more difficult step. In a 
course of years, while a neighbor who began teach- 
ing at the same time has been stagnating or even 
retrograding for the want of a plan and a purpose, a 
diligent man, by system and perseverance, may make 
himself at least equal to many who have enjoyed better 
advantages in early life, and at the same time have 
the superadded enjoyment of feeling that he has been 
his own teacher. 

3. Keep a journal or common-place looJc. The habit 
of composing daily is very valuable to the teacher. 
In this book he may record whatever plans he has 
devised, with their results in practice. He may enter 
remarkable cases of discipline, — in short, anything 
which in the course of his practice he finds inter- 
esting. Those valuable suggestions which he receives 
from others, or hints that he may derive from 
books, may be epitomized here, and thus be treas- 
ured up for future reference. Sometimes one's best 
thoughts fade from his own mind and he has no power 
to recall them. Such a book would preserve them, 
and would moreover show the character of one's 
thoughts at any particular period, and the j^^f ogress 



330 THEOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A demonstration— Encouragement to others. 

of thought, from one period to auother^ better than any 
other means.* 

To these means of self-cnlture I would add the j^rac- 
tice of carefully reading and writing on chosen subjects 
more fully described in the chapter on Habits of the 
Teacher. 

By all these means and such others as may come 
within his reach, if a teacher succeeds in liis attempts 
at progress, he does much for his 2irofessioii. The very 
fact that he has given practical demonstration that a 
man may teach and still improve ; that the temptations 
of his profession may be resisted and overcome ; that 
the life of the pedagogue which has required him to 
keep the company of small minds and to be occupied 
with minute objects, has never prevented his holding 
communion with the greatest men our earth has known, 
nor circumscribed in the least the sphere of his grasp- 
ing research, — I say the very fact that he has thus 
shown what a man may do under such circum- 
stances, may do much to encourage others to like 
effort. 

But there are other and direct duties which he owes 
to hia profession, which I proceed to consider under 
the head of 

* For furtlier remarks on the Common-place Book, see chap, vii p. 138, 
J^pte. 



teacher's relation^ to his profession 331 



MuUial aid.— Seinslmess.— An exclusive spirit. 



SECTION il— MUTUAL AID. 

Every teacher should be willing to impart as well as 
to receive good. No one, whatever may be his per- 
sonal exertions, can monopolize all the wisdom of the 
world. The French have a proverb that " Everybody 
is wiser than anybody." Acting on this principle the 
teacher should be willing to bring his attainments into 
the common stock, and to diffuse around him as far as 
he is able the light he possesses. I have no language 
with which to express my abhorrence of that selfish- 
ness which prompts a man, after attaining to some 
eminence as a teacher by the free use of all the means 
within his reach, self-complacently to stand aloof from 
his fellow teachers, as if he would say : " Brethren, 
help yourselves — I have no need of you, and you have 
no claim upon me. 1 have toiled hard for my emi- 
nence, and the secret is with me. I will enjoy it alone. 
When you have toiled as long, you may be as wise. 
Brethren, help yourselves.'' Such a spirit would per- 
haps be tolerated by the world in an avaricious man 
who had labored to treasure up the shining dust of earth. 
But no man may innocently monopolize knowledge. 
The light of the sun is shed in golden refulgence upon 
every man, and no one if he would may separate a 
portion for his own exclusive use by closing his shut- 



332 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Without excuse.— Mutual visitation.— Dr. Young. 

ters about liim, — for that moment his light be- 
comes darkness. It is thus with the light of 
knowledge. Like the air we breathe, or like the 
rain from heaven, it should be free to all. The 
man who would lock up the treasures of learning 
from the gaze of the whole world, whether in the tomes 
of some dusty library, as of old it was done, or iu the 
recesses of his narrower soul, is unworthy of the name 
of man ; he certainly has not the spirit of the teacher. 
An exclusive spirit may be borne where meaner 
things, as houses, and lands, and gold, are at stake : 
but in education and religion — light and love, — where 
giving doth not impoverish nor withholding make rich, 
there is not even the shadow of an excuse for it. The 
man who is exclusive in these things, would be so, I 
fear, in heaven. 

Hoiu can teachers encourage each other f 
1. By mutual visitation. Very much may be done by 
social intercourse. Two teachers can scarcely converse 
together an hour without benefiting each other. The 
advantages of intercourse with friends, as delineated 
by Dr. Young, may not be denied to teachers : 

" Hast thou no friend to set thy mind ahroach ? 
Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts shut up Avant air, 
And spoil lil^e bales unopened to the sun. 
Had thought heen all, sweet speech had heen denied. 



teacher's relation to his profession^ 333 

Even one's faults may instruct us. 

Thouglit, too, delivered, is the more possessed ; 
Teaching-, we learn ; and giving, we retain 
The hirths of Intellect, when dumb, forgot. 
Speech ventilates our Intellectual fire ; 
Speech burnishes our mental magazine, 
Brightens for ornament, and whets for use." 

But not only should teachers visit one another, — it is 
profitable also for them to visit each other^s schools. I 
have never spent an hour in the school of another with- 
out gaining some instruction. Sometimes a new way 
of illustrating a difficult point, sometimes an exhibition 
of tact in managing a difficult case in discipline, some- 
times an improved method of keeping up the interest 
in a class, would suggest the means of making my own 
labors the more successful. And even should one's 
neighbor be a bad teacher, one may sometimes learn as 
much from witnessing glaring defects as great excel- 
lencies. Some of the most profitable lessons I have 
ever received have been drawn from the deficiencies of a 
fellow teacher. We seldom '^ see ourselves as others 
see us"; and we are often insensible of our own faults 
till we have seen them strikingly exhibited by another ; 
and then by a comparison we correct our own. 

Besides, by a visitation of a friend's school we may 
not only receive good, but we may impart it. If there 
is mutual confidence, a few words may aid him to cor- 
rect his faults, if he has any, — faults which but for 



^84 T'HEOKY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIKfi 

Stated teachers' meetings.— Tlielr use.— Employ the pen. 

such suggestion might grow into co med habits to 
his permanent injury. 

So important is this mutual visitation among teach- 
ers as a means of improvement, that I doubt not em- 
ployers would find it for their interest to encourage it 
by allowing the teachers to set apart an occasional half 
day for this purpose. 

It would, moreover, be very useful for the teachers 
of a town to hold stated meetings as often as once a 
month for the purpose of mutual improvement. It 
would cultivate a fellow-feeling among them, and it 
would afford them an opportunity to exchange thoughts 
on most of the difficulties which they meet in their 
schools, and the best methods of surmounting them. 
At these meetings a mutual exchange of books on the 
subject of teaching would extend the facilities of each 
for improving his own mind and his methods of instruc- 
tion and government. 

2. By the use of the pen. Every teacher should be 
a ready writer. Nearly every teacher could gain ac- 
cess to the columns of some paper, through which he 
could impart the results of his experience, or of his 
reflection. Such a course would benefit him specially, 
and at the same time it would awaken other minds to 
thought and action. In this way the attention, not only 
of teachers but of parents, would be called to the great 



83o 

Teachers' Associations.— Institutes.— Their utility. 

work of education. One mind in this way might move 
a thousand. If a teacher does not feel qualified to 
instruct, let him inquire, and thus call out the wisdom 
of others. This could be done in nearly every village. 
The press is almost always ready to promote the cause 
of education. By the use of it teachers may profitably 
discuss all the great questions pertaining to their duty, 
and at the same time enlighten the community in which 
they live. This is an instrumentality as yet too little 
employed. 

3. B\j Teachers^ Associations or Institutes. These 
are peculiarly adapted to the diffusion of the best plans 
of instruction. Eightly conducted they can never fail 
of being useful. Every man who lectures or teaches is 
profited by the preparation. If he is a man of wisdom 
and experience he will benefit his hearers. If other- 
wise, the discussion which should ever follow a lecture 
will expose its fallacies. It has often happened in such 
associations, that an honest and experienced man has 
in a half hour given to the younger portion of the 
members lessons of wisdom which it would take them 
years to learn by their own observation. Errors in 
principle and practice have been exposed into which 
many a young teacher was unconsciously falling, 
and hints have been given to the quicker minds by 
which their own modes of teaching and governing have 
been speedily improved. 



S^6 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHI^a 

Sliould be practical.— Talk.— Encouragement by meeting friends. 

As far as possible such meetings should be made 
strictly practical. To older teachers, who usually have 
the most to do with the management of them, should 
bear in mind that they are mainly designed to diffuse 
practical ideas of teaching, particularly among the 
younger members. Too often these meetings are made 
the arena of debate upon questions of very little prac- 
tical importance to the teacher. I have seen a body of 
men spend an entire session of a half-day in discussing 
a series of overwrought resolutions upon some topic 
scarcely at all connected with any duty of the teacher, 
frequently leaving the main question to wrangle about 
some point of order, or of ^^parliamentary usage"; 
and after the resolutions were passed or rejected, as the 
case might be, — (and it was of very little consequence 
whether " carried '' or " lost ",) — the ladies and younger 
teachers who had borne no part in the talk, would find 
it difficult to tell ''wherefore they had come together." 
Nothing had been said or done by which they could be 
aided in their schools. Lecturers, too, have frequently 
mistaken their aim. Ambitious to shine out as literary 
men, they have given orations instead of practical 
lessons. In these meetings, it seems to me nothing 
ostentatious, nothing far-fetched is what we need ; but 
rather the modes and experience of practical men. We 
need to come down to the schoolroom, to the every-day 



TEACHER^S RELATION" TO HIS PROFESSION 337 

Illustration.— A professional feeling. 

business of the teacher, and thus prepare him to do his 
work more successfully on his return to his duties. 

Another and no inconsiderable advantage of such 
associations is that the teacher gains encouragement 
and strength by being thus brought in contact with 
others engaged in the same pursuit. Toiling on alone, 
in his isolated district, surrounded by obstacles and dis- 
couragements, weighed down by care and finding none 
to sympathize with him, he is almost ready to faint in 
his course and perhaps to abandon his calling. At 
this crisis he reads the notice for the teachers' meeting 
and he resolves to go up once more to the gathering of 
his friends. From the various parts of the county, 
from the populous and crowded city, and from the by- 
ways of the country-towns, a goodly number collect 
together and greet each other. Smile answers to smile, 
the blood courses more freely through the veins, the 
spirits, long depressed perhaps, partake of the general 
glow, and each feels that he is not toiling alone. He 
feels that a noble brotherhood of kindred spirits are 
laboring in the same field, under trials and discourage- 
ments similar to those which have oppressed him. He 
derives new strength from the sympathy of friends. 

A professional feeling is engendered which Avill ac- 
company him to his schoolroom ; and when he goes 
home it is with renewed vigor and fresh aspirings to be 



838 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Light breaks in.— Cautions.— Be honest. 

a better man and a better teacher. He labors with 
more confidence in- himself ; and^ enlightened by what 
he has seen and heard, he is far more successful than 
before. His pupils, too, respond to the new life they 
see enkindling in him, and go to their work more cheer- 
fully. One difficulty after another vanishes, and he 
begins to think teaching, after all, is not the worst em- 
ployment in the world, but that it has some flowers as 
well as thorns ; and he concludes to remain in the pro- 
fession. This has been the history of at least one man. 
Long may many others have occasion to exercise grati- 
tude like his for the enjoyment of similar privileges.* 



I ought not to leave this subject without a word or 

two of caution : 

1. Be honest. In all your interconrse with your 
fellow-teachers, be careful to use the words of ^"^ truth 

* The Essex County Teachers' Association, in Massachusetts, Avas flrst 
organized in 1829, and for seventeen years its meetings, of two days eaeli, 
have been held semi-annually, and usually very fully attended. This 
association has wrought an untold amount of usefulness by its improve- 
ment and encouragement of the teachers of that county,— and at this time 
it continues to diffuse its wonted blessings. A more intelligent and de- 
voted body of teachers cannot be found in the United States than those 
who now compose that association. Long may it continue to irradiate its 
glorious light ; and long may its devoted members enjoy the well-merited 
confidence of the community in which they labor. 



tEACHER'S RELATION TO ll 1 S PHOFESS/OX ^30 

Danger of over-coloring.— Every-day practice.— " Nothing extraordiuary." 

and soberness '\ In stating your experience never allow 
your fancy to embellish your facts. Of this there is 
great danger. The young are sometimes te7npted to tell 
a good story ; but a deviation from the truth — always 
perilous and always wrong — may be peculiarly disas- 
trous here. Experience overstated may egregiously 
mislead the unwary inquirer after truth. Never over- 
color the picture ; it is better to err on the other side. 

So, likewise, in exhibiting your school to fellow- 
teachers, be strictly honest. They come to learn from 
your every-day practice, and not from a counterfeit ; 
and Avhenever you dress your school in a showy garb 
to win the applause of a fellow- teacher you do him a 
great injustice. You may not please your friend so 
much by your ordinary mode as by something assumed 
for the occasion ; but you may profit him far more ; 
and in the end you lose nothing by pursuing the line 
of duty. 

I well remember that a somewhat distinguished 
teacher once visited my own school, who on going 
away expressed himself somewhat disappointed because 
he did not see anything " extraordmary ", as he said, 
in my mode of procedure. Tlie truth was, nothing ex- 
traordinary was attempted. He saw what I wished to 
show him, an ordmary day^s work ; for I had before 
that time imbibed the opinion that a man^s reputation 



^40 ULIEGR^ AXD practice of TEAC«iK(? 

Avoid imita,tloii.— Adapt rather than adopt another's plans. 

will be more firmly established by sustaining every day 
a fair mediocrity, than it ever can be by an attempt to 
outdo himself on a few special occasions. As the value 
of biographical writing is often very much diminished 
because the writer has endeavored to paint his character 
too perfect to be Iniman, — so these visitations will lose 
their utility, whenever, by substituting hollow preten- 
sion for sober reality, the teacher endeavors to exMhit 
such a sciiool as he does not daily keep. 

2. Avoid servile imitation of any model. It is often 
remarked that every man's plan is the best for him ; 
and that many besides David can never fight in Saul's 
armor. This is generally true. All experience then 
should be considered in connection with the circum- 
stances under which it was tried, never forgetting the 
character and genius of the person who relates it. What 
might succeed in his hand may fail in yours ; particu- 
larly as you will lack the interest of an original inventor. 

The true secret lies in listening to the views of all, 
and then in making a judicious combination to meet 
your own character and your own circumstances. It is 
often better to adjust and adapt the plan of another, 
than to adopt it. Servile imitation precludes thought 
in the teacher and reduces him to a mere machine. The 
most successful teachers I have ever known were those 
who would listen attentively to the plans and experience 



TEACHER'S RELATION TO HIS PROFESSION 341 



Avoid self-sufflclency.-Bal3es and sucklings. 



of others, and then strike out a course for themselves, 
attempting that, and that only, which they were confi- 
dent they could successfully execute. 

3. Avoid undue self-sufficiency. Men usually cease 
to learn when they tUnh they are wise enough. The 
teacher is in danger of falling into this error. Moving 
for the most part among children, where his decisions 
are seldom questioned, he is very apt to attach undue 
importance to his own opinions. Such a man meets 
his fellows with much self-complacency, and is but 
poorlv prepared to be profited by the views of others. 
But the teacher should never cease to be teachable. 
There are very few men too old or too wise to learn 
something ; and they are the wisest, if not the oldest, 
who are willing to welcome a real improvement, even 
though it should come from comparative "babes and 
sucklings", out of whose mouths God has sometime.^ 
perfected praise. 



CHAPTER XIV 

MISCELLAl^EOUS SUGGESTIONS 

ON" looking over the notes which I have at various 
times made of my own experience and observa- 
tion^ during twenty years of practical teaching, I find 
there are several thoughts which may be of some service 
to the young teacher, and which have not been intro- 
duced under any of the general topics of this volume. 
I have therefore thought best to introduce a special 
chapter, with the above title, where I might lawfully 
bring together, without much regard to method, such 
varied hints as may convey to some reader a useful les- 
son. Some of these hints will refer to faults which 
should be carefully avoided, while others will point out 
some duties to be performed. 

SECTION I — THINGS TO BE AVOIDED 

1. Guard against prejudice on entering a school. It 

is not always safe to rely upon first impressions as to 

character. At the opening of a school perhaps fifty 

individuals for the first time are brought before the 

teacher. Some of them are from humble life, and 

perhaps bear upon them the marks of parental neglect. 

(343) 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIOSTS 343 



Danger of prejudice.-Its Injiistice.-Why ? 



Their persons and their clothing may present nothing 
to attract and gratify the eye of a stranger. Little ac- 
customed to society they exhibit an awkward bashful- 
ness, or an impertinent forwardness m their manner. 
Contrasted with these, others appear who have been the 
children of indulgence, and who have seen much more 
of the world. A more expensive garb attracts the eye ; 
a more easy and familiar address, conforming to the 
artificial modes of society, is very likely to win the 
heart. The teacher is very prone to find his feelings 
committed in favor of the latter class and against the 
former. But this is all wrong. A judgment thus 
hastily formed is extremely hazardous,-as a few days^ 
acquaintance will usually show. The child of blunt or 
shy demeanor often has the truest heart,-a heart whose 
sentiments go out by the shortest course,-a heart that 
has never learned the artificial forms of the world, be- 
cause it has never felt the need of them. And how 
unjust to the child is a prejudice founded on the circum- 
stance of dress ! Must the inability or neglect of his 
parent be doubly visited on him ? Is is not enough that 
he daily feels the inward mortification of a contrast with 
his more favored school-fellows ? Must he be painfully 
reminded of it by discovering that his teacher repels 
him on that account, and bestows his kindliest smiles 
upon those who are -the brightest and best-clad '' ? 



c 



344 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Pupils not to direct tlieir studies. 

And yet such unjust prejudice is common ; wrong 
and unfeeling as it is, it is too common. A fine dress, 
and a clean face, and a graceful manner, I know are 
attractive ; but the teacher has to do with the mind 
and the heart ; — and he should never be deterred by 
anything exterior from making a diligent and patient 
search for good qualities which have their home behind 
the surface, — and he should ever possess a smile as 
cordial and a tone as parental for the neglected child of 
poverty and ignorance, as for the more favored son of 
wealth and ease. 

2. Do not alloiu your ^mpils to direct their own 
studies. Whatever their age may be, they are seldom 
capable of doing this. It is the aim of the young to 
get over a long course of study. They are usually 
pleased to belong to higher classes before they have 
mastered the branches taught in the lower. If children 
are suffered to direct their own studies, they usually 
make themselves very poor scholars. This is the bane 
of many of our select schools and academies, where the 
teacher yields this right in order to secure pupils and a 
salary. But no one, not even the parent, is as com- 
petent as the teacher ought to be to direct in this 
matter. He has the best opportunity daily to fathom 
the pupirs attainments and to understand his defi- 
ciencies. He may claim the right to direct. In case 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIOKS 345 

THIS tlie teucner's province.— A mistake.— An egregious evil in all scliools. 



the pupil withstands his decision, the teacher should 
appeal to the parent, and endeavor there to sustain his 
point, a thing generally within his power if indeed he 
is right. If the parent too is obstinate, and firmly in- 
sists upon the wrong course, the teacher may perhaps 
submit, though he cannot submit without the con- 
sciousness that his province has been invaded. 

It is too frequently the case that the teacher at the 
first yields all this ground voluntarily, by asking the 
children what they wish to study. When he has once 
made them a party in this question he need not wonder 
if they claim to be heard. This he should not do. He 
should first be sure that he is qualified to direct aright, 
and then, as a matter of course, proceed to do it, just 
as the physician would prescribe for the physical malady 
of such a child. The latter is not more the rightful 
duty of the physician, than the former is of the school 
teacher. Neither has the power to enforce his pre- 
scription against the parents' consent, — but that con- 
sent may be taken for granted by both till informed 
that it is withheld. 

I may here remark that in all my intercourse with 
the young, whether in the common or the higher school, 
I have found no greater evil than that of proceeding to 
the more difficult branches before the elementary studies 
have been mastered. It is no uncommon thing to find 



346 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Illustrated.— The teacher— the remedy.— Do not attempt too many things. 



those who have '^ attended" to the higher mathematics 
— algebra, geometry, and the like — whose reading and 
writing are wretclied in the extreme, and whose spell- 
ing is absolutely intolerable I They have been pursuing 
quadratics, but are unable to explain why they ^'^carry 
one for every ten '' ; they have wandered among the 
stars in search of other worlds, by the science of astron- 
omy, without knowing the most simple points in the 
geography of our own ; they have studied logarithms 
and infinite series, but cannot be safely trusted to add 
a column of figures, or to compute the simple interest 
upon a common note ! In short, they have studied 
every tiling, except what is most useful to be known in 
practical life, and have really learned — nothing ! 

Now if this evil — grievous and extensive as it is at 
present — is destined ever to be abated, it is to be ac- 
complished by the instrumentality of the teacher, 
acting, in his appropriate sphere, in the capacity of a 
director as to the course of study for the young. He 
must not be a man who can merely teach, but one who 
understands the high import of a true education, and 
knows how to prescribe the order of its progress ; one, 
in short, who will never attempt to erect a showy 
superstructure upon an insufficient foundation. 

3. Do not attempt to teach too many things. There 
is a tendency at present to introduce too many things 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 347 

Make no ambiguous mark upon mind. 

into all our schools. Nothing is more common than to 
hear our public lecturers declare, as they become a little 
enthusiastic in any given department, that ^^ this 
branch should at once be made a study in our common 
schools." This is heard of almost the whole round of 
the natural sciences. But it seems to me to be dictated 
by over-wrought enthusiasm. Everything cannot be 
well tauglit in our scliooh ; nor should too much be 
attempted. It is the province of our schools — particu- 
larly our common schools — to afford tliorougli instruc- 
tion in a few things, and to awaken a desire for more 
extended attainment. The instruction given should, 
as far as possible, be complete in itself, — while it should 
afford the means of making further advancement ; but 
that instruction which, beingmerely superficial, neither 
itself informs the mind nor imparts the desire and the 
means of future self-improvement, is worse than use- 
less ; it is positively injurious. A few branches 
thoroughly j^ossessed are worth more than a thousand 
merely glanced at, — and the idea of changing our com- 
mon schools to universities, where our children, before 
they pass from the years of their babyhood, ai'e to grasp 
tlie whole range of the sciences, is one of the most pre- 
posterous that has grown up even in this age of follies. 
The teacher then should not undertake too much ; he 
should be sure that he can accomplish what he under- 



348 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

" Mind your business."— Excuses.— Dr. Franklin's remark. 

takes. The mark he makes upon the yoimg should he no 
uncertain sign. 

4. Never attend to extraneous husmess in school 
hours. This is a common fault. Many teachers neg- 
lect their duties in school to write letters or transact 
such other business as should be done at home. This 
is always wrong. There is no time for it in any school ; 
for a diligent teacher can always find full employment 
even with a small number. Besides, he has engaged to 
devote himself to the school ; and any dej^arture from 
this is a violation of his contract. The children will so 
view it and thus lose much of their respect for the 
teacher. Moreover, if they see him neglect his business 
for some other, they will be very likely to neglect theirs, 
and thus disorder will be introduced. I hold that the 
teacher is bound to devote every mornent of school hours 
to active lahor for the school. 

5. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the defects of 
your school. Franklin, I think, said that ''a man who 
is good for making excuses is good for nothing else.^^ 
I have often thought of this as I have visited the schools 
of persons given to this failing. It is sometimes quite 
amusing to hear such a teacher keep up a sort of run- 
ning apology for the various pupils. A class is called 
to read. The teacher remarks, ''This class have but 
just commenced reading in this book.'' Stephen fin- 



MlSCiiLLANEOUS SUGGl^STlONS o49 



An Illustration.— Pity excited. 



ishes the first paragraph, and the teacher adds : 
'•' Stephen has not attended school very regularly lately." 
William reads the second. ^^This boy/' says the 
teacher, ''was very backward when I came here— he 
has but just joined this class." Charles executes the 
third. ''That boy has an impediment in his speech." 
Reuben follows. "It is almost impossible to make a 
good reader of Reuben ; he never seems to pay the least 
attention. I have bestowed unwearied pains upon 
him." Mary takes her turn. "This girl has lost her 
book, and her father refuses to buy her another." Mary 
here blushes to the eyes,— for though she could bear 
his reproof, she still has some sense of family pride ; 
she bursts into tears, while Martha reads the next 
paragraph. " I have tried all along," says the teacher, 
"to make this girl raise her voice, but still she will 
almost stifle her words." Martha looks dejected, and 
the next in order makes an attempt. 

Now the teacher in all this has no malicious design 
to wound the feelings of every child in the class, — and 
yet he as effectually accomplishes that result as if he 
had premeditated it. Every scholar is interested to 
read as well as possible in the presence of strangers ; 
every one makes the eifort to do so ; yet every one is 
practically pronounced to have failed. The visitors 
pity the poor pupils for the pain they are made thus 



35(3 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 



When I came /u-jt."— Meanness.— " How old are you ; 



needlessly to suffer, and they pity also the iceakness of 
the poor teacher, whose love of approbation has so 
blinded his own perception that he is regardless of the 
feelings of others, and thinks of nothing but his own. 

This over-anxiety for the good opinion of others 
shows itself in a still less amiable light, when the 
teacher frequently makes unfavorable allusions to liis 
predecessor. ^^When / came here," says the teacher 
significantly, '^1 found them all poor readers." Or, if 
a little disorder occurs in school he takes care to add : 
'^1 found i\\Q &q\\oo\ in perfect confusion," — or, ''The 
former teacher, as near as I can learn, used to allow the 
children to talk and play as much as they pleased." 
Now, whatever view we take of such a course, it is im- 
possible to pronounce it anything better than despicable 
meanness. For if the charge is true, it is by no means 
magnanimous to publish the faults of another ; and if 
it is untrue in whole or in part, as most likely it is, 
none but a contemptible person would magnify an- 
other's failings to mitigate his own. 

There is still another way in which this love of personal 
applause exhibits itself. I have seen teachers call upon 
their brightest scholars to recite, and then ask them to 
tell their age, in order to remind the visitor that they 
were very young to do so well ; and then insinuate that 
their older pupils could of course do much better. 



iirSCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 'Soi 

Such arts recoil.— Comparisons are odious.— Tenderness to a dull child. 

All these arts, however, recoil upon the teacher who 
uses them. A visitor of any discernment sees through 
them at once, and immediately suspects the teacher of 
conscious incompetency or wilful deception. The 
pupils lose their respect for a man whom they all per- 
ceive to be acting- a dishonorable part. I repeat, then, 
Never attempt to cove?- the defects of yoiir schools by 
making ridiculons excuses. 

6. Never compare one child ivith another. It is a 
poor way of stimulating a dull pupil to compare him 
with a better scholar. It is the direct way to engender 
hatred in the mind of the one, and the most consum- 
mate self-complacency in the other. Not one child in 
a thousand can be publicly held up to the school as a 
pattern of excellence without becoming excessively 
vain ; at the same time all the other scholars will be 
more or less excited to envy. Such a course is always 
unsafe ; almost always injurious. 

7. Avoid woundi7ig the sensibilities of a dull child. 
There will always be those in every school who are slow 
to comprehend. After their classmates have grasped 
an idea during the teacher's explanation, they still have 
the vacant stare, the unintelligent expression. This 
may be so after a second or third explanation. The 
teacher is now strongly tempted to indulge in expres- 
sions of impatience, if not of opprobrium. This 



36^ THEORY AND t^RACTlCE OF TEACHING 



Never get out of temper with parents.— Wliy 



temptation he should resist. Such children are to be 
pitied for their dullness, but never to be censured for 
it. It is an unfeeling thing to sting the soul that is 
already benighted. He should cheer and encourage 
such a slow mind to greater effort, by the sunshine of 
kind looks, and the warm breath of sympathy, rather 
than freeze up the feeble current of vivacity Avhich yet 
remains there by a forbidding frown or a blast of re- 
proach. A dull child is almost always affectionate ; 
and it is through the medium of kindness and patience 
that su'jli a one is most effectually stimulated. 

8. Never lose your patience when iiarents unreason-^ 
ably interfere with your plans. It must be expected 
that some of the parents will wish to dictate to the 
teacher what course he shall pursue, at least in relation 
to their own children. This will sometimes bring them 
to the schoolroom, perhaps in a tone of complaint, to 
set the teacher right. Whenever a parent thus steps 
beyond theboundsof propriety, the teacher should never 
lose his self-possession. He should always speak the 
language of courtesy, in frankness, but in firmness. 
He should reason with the parent, and if possible con- 
vince him, — but he should never insult or abuse him. 
It may be well to propose to see him at his own house 
in order to talk over the matter more at his leisure. I 
recollect once a parent sent a hasty refusal to purchase 



SnSCELLAKEOUS SUGGESTIONS 555 

An incident.— The study of the Bible. 

a necessary book for his son, — a refusal clothed in no 
very respectful language. I gave the lad a courteous 
note directed to his father, in which I intimated my 
desire to have an interview with him at his house at 
such time as he might appoint. In half an hour the 
boy came bounding back with the desired book, inform- 
ing me that his father said, '^He guessed he might as 
well get the book and done with it.^^ My intercourse 
with that parent was ever afterwards of the most pleas- 
ant kind. A supercilious parent can never gain an 
advantage over a teacher, unless he can first provoke 
him to impatience or anger. As long as the teacher is 
perfectly self-possessed he is impregnable. 

9. Never make the study of tlie Bible a imnishment. 
I have known a teacher to assign sundry passages of the 
Bible, condemnatory of a particular sin, to be committed 
to memory as a punishment. I have also known the 
idle scholar to be detained after school to study pas- 
sages of scripture, because he had failed to learn his 
other lessons in due time. I believe this to be bad 
policy, as well as doubtful religion. The lessons that 
a child thus learns are always connected in his mind 
with unnleasant associations. Ilis heart is not made 
better by truths thus learned. The Bible indeed should 
be studied by the young, but they should be attractedto 
it by the spirit of love, rather than driven to it by the 



354 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACllIitd 

Ride no hobbies in teacliing.— A discovery becomes a lioWy. 

spirit of vindictiveness. They who suppose that chil- 
dren can be made to love the Bible by being thus driven 
to the study of it, have sadly mistaken the human heart. 
10. Ride no " lioblies '' in teaching. Almost every 
man, in whatever vocation, has some liobiy, some ^' one 
idea^\ which he pushes forward on all occasions, no 
matter what may be the consequences. It is not strange 
that it is often thus with the teacher. If the teacher 
has any independence of mind, any originality, he will 
at some period in his life naturally incline to try some 
experiments in teaching. Partly on account of the 
novelty of the plan, and partly on account of the teach- 
er's interest in the success of his own measure, he finds 
it works well in the class where it was first tried; and 
he rejoices that he has made a discovery. Teaching 
now possesses a new interest for him, and he very likely 
becomes enthusiastic. He applies his new measure to 
other classes, and loudly recommends it to other teach- 
ers. For a time it succeeds and it becomes his Tioliby. 
Whenever a stranger visits his school he shows oif his 
new measure. AVhenever he attends a teachers^ meet- 
ing he describes it, and perhaps presents a class of his 
pupils to verify its excellency. He abandons his old 
and long-tried plans, and persists in the new one. By 
and by the novelty has worn away and his pupils be- 
come dull under its operation, and reason suggests that 



iriSOELLANEOUS SU(iGESTIONS 355 



Oral Instruction.— Origin of tlie oral mania. 



a return to the former methods would be advisable. 
Still, because it is his invention, he persists. Others 
try the experiment. Some succeed ; some fail. Some 
of them by a public speech commit themselves to it, 
and then persist in it to preserve their consistency. In 
this way a great many objectionable modes of teaching 
have gained currency and btill hold their sway in many 
of our schools. 

Among these I might mention concert recitation, and 
oral instruction when made a substitute for study. Of 
the origin and tendency of the former I have spoken 
more at length in the chaj^ter on " Conducting liecita- 
tions ". Of the latter a word or two may be said in 
this place. 

It was found years ago, in the earlier attempts to 
teach the blind, that they made very rapid strides in 
acquiring knowledge through the sole medium of oral 
instruction. As might have been foreseen, they be- 
came intensely interested in hearing about things which 
had surrounded them all their days, but which they 
had never seen. Shut in as they were from the privi- 
lege of sight, there was nothing to distract their atten- 
tion from whatever was communicated to them through 
the sense of hearing ; and as they had been blind from 
their birth, this discipline of attention had been going 
on from infancy. Under these circumstances, their 



556 IMEORY AKi) PKACtiCE OS* tEAOfiilNC? 

Baby-talk !— Great learning !— Extended to Mgher classes. 

progress in knowledge by mere oral teaching was as- 
tonishing. This was all well. But soon, some one 
conceived the idea of substituting oral instruction for 
study among seeing children. Immediately there was 
an oral ?nania. Infant schools grew up in every vil- 
lage, — infant school manuals were prepared, filled with 
scieiitific haby-talk, for the use of the worthy dames 
who were to drive the liobhy, and the nineteenth cen- 
tury bade fair to do more toward lighting up the fires 
of science than all time before had accomplished ! It 
was truly wonderful for a time to listen to the learned 
volubility of these same infant schools. The wonders 
of astronomy, chemistry, botany, and zoology, with the 
terms of Cuvier's classification, and a thousand other 
things, were all detailed with astonishing familiarity by 
p^ipils under five years of age ! Some eminent teachers 
sagely took the hint, and adopted the oral system with 
their older classes. The sciences were taught by lec- 
tures. The pupils of this happy day had nothing to do 
but to sit and receive. To be sure sometimes they 
would become inattentive, and it would be discovered 
by their teachers that they did not retain quite all that 
was told to them. This, however, was no fault of the 
system, it was urged ; the system was well enough, but 
unfortunately the pupils had eyes, and their attention 
was frequently diverted by the unlucky use of these 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTION-S 357 

A royal road !— Eyes are useless orbs ! 

worthless organs. A royal road, sure enough, was 
found to the temple of science, too long beyond mortal 
reach by reason of the rugged footpath over which the 
student was compelled to climb. Happy, glorious 
day ! No more must toil and thought be the price of 
success ! No more must the midnight oil be con- 
sumed, and the brain be puzzled, in search of the 
wisdom of ages ! No more must the eyes be pained — 
(they are hereafter to be considered encumbrances) — in 
searching the classic page ; the ear is to be the easy 
inlet to the soul ! * * * 



Such was the lioUij of 1829 to 1831 in our own 
country. During sixteen years past, those babes of 
the infant schools have grown into ''young men and 
maidens", in no way distinguished, after all, unless they 
have since achieved distinction by actual study. The 
pupils of those higher schools have obtained whatever 
they now value in their education mainly by the use of 
their eyes, notwithstanding at one time their worthy 
guides would have almost deemed it a blessing to have 
had their eyes put out. It has been found that God 
was indeed wise in the bestowment of sight, — and some 
at least have acknowledged that a method that is well 
suited to the instruction of those who are blind, because 



358 THEOKY AN^D PRACTICE OF TEACHIITG 

God wiser than men.— OtUer hobbles— Patent methods. 

it is the only possible one for them, may not be the best 
for those who can see. At the present time the senti- 
ment begins to prevail that oral instruction can never 
supply the place of study ; that the lecturing or ^'pour- 
ing-in process " cannot long secure the attention ; that 
the mind by merely receiving, gains no vigor of its own ; 
and that scholars must be made, if made at all, mainly 
by their own exertions in the use of books. 

It would be easy to mention other examples of liohhies 
which have been ridden by teachers very much to the 
injury of their schools. Those already given may, how- 
ever, suffice for the purpose of illustration. Let it be 
remembered, then, that no one method of instruction 
comprises all the excellencies and avoids all the defects 
of good teaching ; and that he is the wisest teacher who 
introduces a judicious variety into his modes of instruc- 
tion, profiting by the suggestions of others, but relying 
mainly upon his own careful observation, eschewing all 
^''patent methods", and nevey- losing his common" sense. 

Under the head of liobiies, I may add one other re- 
mark. Many teachers have some favo7'ite hranch of 
study, in which, because they excel, they take special 
delight. One man is a good mathematician, another 
an expert accountant, a third a skillful grammarian. 
Now the danger is that the favorite branch of study 
jnay become the lioliby, — and that the other branches 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 359 

Higher branches.— Things to be done.— The scholars' friend. 

will be neglected. This is indeed not unfrequently 
the case. 

Again, some teachers are more interested in the 
higher branches generally, because they were the last 
pursued in their college course, or for some other 
reason. They thoreforo neglect the lower studies to 
the great detriment of the youth under their charge. 
Against all such partial views the teacher should take 
great pains to guard himself. He may fall uncon- 
sciously and almost imperceptibly into some of these 
errors. Let me add the caution, then, — Never allow 
your partiality for one study, or a class of studies, to 
divert your attention from all those other l>ranches 
which are necessary to constitute a good education. 

SECTIOISr II — THINGS TO BE PERFOKMED 

I. Convince your scholars hy your conduct that you 
are their friend. It is all-important that you should 
gain complete ascendency over the minds of your 
pupils. In no way is this point so successfully gained 
as by leading them to feel that you are their true 
friend. When they feel this, all their sentiments of 
generosity, gratitude, and love, conspire to lead them 
to render cheerful obedience to your Avishes. Govern- 
ment then becomes easy ; instruction is no longer 
irksomo j and you can most cordially respond to the 



360 THEORY AIs^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Delightful task.— Love for scholars,— for teaching,— to he felt. 

poet, ill that beautiful sentiment too seldom fully 
realized : — 

" Delightful tasl: ! to rear the tender thought, 
And teach the young idea how to shoot, 
To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind. 
To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix 
The generous piu-pose in the glowing hreast." 

But effectually to convince them that you are thus 
their friend, is not the work of a moment. Words 
alone can never do it. You may make professions of 
interest in them, but it is all to no purpose. Your 
actions, your looks, your whole spirit must show it. 
In order thus to exhibit it, you must feel a deep, an 
all-pervading interest in the welfare of every child. 
You must love your profession, and you must love — 
sincerely love — those whom you are called to teach. 
If you do not love the work of teaching, and cannot 
bring yourself to love the children of your charge, you 
may not expect success. It was long ago declared that 

" Love only is the loan for love,"— 

and this is specially true with the love of children. 
Their souls spontaneously go out after those who love 
them. Strive, then, to gain this point with them, not 
by empty pretensions, always quickly read and as 
quickly despised by the young ; but by that full, frank, 
cordial expression of kindness in your manner towards 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 361 



Care of scliool-house. -Resis t the beglnnings.-Care of books, desks, e tc. 

them, which, being based upon deep principle in your- 
self, is sure at once to win their affection and their ready 
compliance with all your reasonable requisitions. 

II. Talce smcial care that the scliool-liouse aiid its 
appendages are Icept in good order. This is a part of 
every teacher's doty. He should have an eye that is con- 
stantly on the alert to perceive the smallest beginnings of 
injury to any part of the premises. It is often painful 
to see a new schoolhouse that has with much care and 
expense been put in perfect order, very soon cut and 
otherwise disfigured by the pupils,— the glass broken, the 
ceiling soiled, the desks and floors stained with ink, and 
everything bearing the marks of youthful destructive- 
ness. The teacher should be held accountable for such 
results, for he can by proper vigilance prevent them. 

Some of his first lessons to his pupils should be upon 
the subject of practical neatness in regard to everything 
that pertains to the school. They should be impressed 
with the belief that he holds neatness as a cardinal virtue. 
Daily should he watch to discover the first violation of 
propriety upon the premises. This first violation should 
be promptly met. There is great wisdom in the adage 
which enjoins us to "resist the degimiings''. 

So, too, he should exercise an oversight of the books 
belonging to the pupils. Many books are speedily de- 
stroyed by children for the want of a little care of the 



362 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Rights of property.— American destructlveness.— Whittling. 

teacher, — probably more than are worn out by use. He 
should also occasionally inspect the desks with a view 
to promote a commendable neatness there. The teacher 
has an undoubted right to inspect any part of the 
premises, — but by a little adroitness he can interest the 
children in a reform of this kind, and then they will 
desire that he should witness their carefulness. 

I may add further, that the children should not only 
be taught to respect the school-house and its append- 
ages, but they should be taught to regard the sacredness 
of all property either public or private. The neighbor- 
ing garden or orchard should be held to be inviolable. 
The teacher may not have the authority to coinjjel 
compliance with his direction or advice beyond school- 
hours, but he should endeavor xo exercise a moral 
influence in the school which will be more powerful 
even than compulsion. So in regard to public build- 
ings, such as churches and court-houses ; and all public 
grounds, as parks, commons, and cemeteries, — the 
teacher should inculcate not only the duty to abstain 
from injuring them, but a commendable desire to see 
them improved and beautified. In America, it is re- 
marked by foreigners, there is a strange tendency to 
destructiveness. In our public buildings, the walls are 
usually disfigured by names and drawings, and even 
our cemeteries do not escape the violence of the knives 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 363 

American currency. —Its excellence.— Post-offlce law. 

of visitors, the trees being cut and marked with names, 
and the flowers i3lucked off and carried away. It is to 
be hoped that our teachers will so exercise a reforming 
influence, that the next generation shall exercise a 
higher principle as well as a better taste in all these 
matters, which, small as they are, make up no mean 
part of the manners and morals of a peo^^le. 
* III. Teach loth hy iwecept and hy practice the use of 
the decimal or America'^ currency. It is very much to 
be regretted that the people in different sections of our 
country still adhere to the use of the old colonial cur- 
rency of pounds, shillings, and pence. It is universally 
admitted that the decimal system of the United States 
is the most convenient system in the world ; and yet 
our people, after having adopted and legalized it, and 
declared everything else illegal in accounts, still treat 
the system as if it were the worst of all. As the shil- 
ling differs so much in value in the different States, it 
is a source of constant perplexity to the traveller to 
understand in different localities the real value of the 
sums he hears named. He is obliged to keep up a con- 
stant process of reduction of currencies in his mind, 
and after all is liable to be imposed upon. 

By the recent post-office law all the rates of postage 
are graduated on the decimal scale. This is a very 
favorable step towards uniformity. Our teachers should 



364 THEORY AI^TD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

An error and prejudice.— One country,— one currency. 

inculcate the adoption of the same system in all matters 
of business. They should teach the children the evils 
of the 2)revalent diversity, and endeavor to form the 
habit in them of tJiinking as well as talking in dollars 
and cents. To this end all the examples in arithmetic 
should be made in our own currency ; all practical 
questions proposed by the teacher should conform to 
it, — and the teacher, in conversing with his pupils as 
well as with all others, should not only use the decimal 
system himself, but insist that they shall use the same 
in reply to him. 

I know it is often urged, and especially in the State 
of New York, that it is easier to reckon in shillings and 
pence than in dollars and cents. But this, so far as it 
is true, is because all the prices are graduated by the 
old currency. Let the prices be graduated by the 
decimal ratio, and the advantage is decidedly in its favor. 
Who has ever had the slightest trouble to calculate the 
amount of his postage dues by the new system ? 

We have one country, — a great country, — a country 
characterized by the free interchange of products, and 
by a constant intercourse of its inhabitants ; we speak 
mostly one language, and are proud to feel that we are 
one great people ; — then why not have one, and only 
ONE currency, equally understood by all, as the law of 
the land contemplates ? 



MSCELLAJJ-EOUS SUGGESTION'S 365 

General reformation.— Illustration. 

This subject is worthy of the regard of all teachers 
throughout the laud^ — and I earnestly call upon them, 
in all places and at all times, to exert whatever influence 
they can to bring about a result so desirable. This 
can be done ; it luill be done ; aiid the sooner it is done 
the letter. 

IV. When scholars do lorong, it is sometimes best to 
withhold v}mnediate reproof, hut to describe a similar 
case in general instriiction. This is one of the most 
effectual modes of curing the evil in the wrong-doer 
himself. It, moreover, gives the teacher a valuable 
text for a lesson on morals before the whole school. 
Care should generally be taken not to lead the school to 
suspect the individual in your mind, while at the same 
time the parable should so fit the case as to preclude 
the necessity of saying to the offender, as Nathan did 
to David : ^"^Thou art the man." 

A case will illustrate this. I recollect once to have 
found, among a large number of compositions presented 
by a class, one that I knew to have been copied. Ko 
notice was taken of it at the time ; but some days after- 
wards a case was described to the class, resembling the 
one that had actually occurred. After exciting con- 
siderable interest in the case, they were told that such a 
thing had happened among their own number ; that I 
did not choose to expose the individual ; but if any of 



SQ6 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHINGS 

A confession.— Accuracy. 

them thought it would be honorable for them to confess, 
such an offence to me in case they had committed it, 
they might seek a jorivate opportunity to do so. In less 
than twenty-four hours no less than four made such a 
confession, detailing freely the extent and the circum- 
stances of their offending. In this way four were re- 
formed, where by direct reproof only one could have 
been reached. It was a frank, not a forced confession ; 
and I was thus easily made to know the extent of this 
sin in the school. By this simple expedient, I have 
reason to believe, plagiarism was effectually eradicated 
for that term at least, in the whole class, and that too 
without the loss of any pupiFs good will. 

It is generally wiser to endeavor to reach the evil in 
its whole extent, than to expend one's strength upon a 
single instance of wrong doing. The conscience of 
the whole school may sometimes be profitably aroused, 
while the particular individual is quite as effectively 
corrected as he would be by a direct reproof. 

V. Be accurate. This is necessary in order to secure 
the respect of your j^upils. What the teacher professes 
to know he should be sure of. Approximations to the 
truth are not enough to satisfy the young mind. When- 
ever a teacher makes a blunder by stating what is not 
true in regard to any fact or principle in science, any 
event in history, or any item of statistics, he lowers 



JilSCELLAHEOUS SUGGESTIONS ^^? 

Certain knowledge.— Prof. Olmsted.— Pitiable ease. 

himself very much in the estimation of all those who 
are capable of detecting his error. If he does not hnoiu 
he may frankly say so and incur no just censure^ pro- 
vided the point be one about which he has not had the 
opportunity to gain the requisite information. But 
when he attempts to speak with the authority of a 
teacher^ he '^should know that whereof he affirms." 
'' The character of the teacher/^ says Professor Olmsted, 
'' is sullied by frequent mistakes, like that of a book- 
keeper or banker. It is surprising to see how soon even 
the youngest learner will lose his confidence and respect 
for his teacher, when he has detected in him occasional 
mistakes. At every such discovery he rises in his own 
estimation, and the teacher proportionally sinks. The 
very character of the pupil is injured by such an inci- 
dent. He rapidly loses the docility and modesty so 
essential to the scholar, and becomes uplifted with 
pride and self-importance. '^ The superciliousness thus 
induced becomes a sore vexation to the teacher. He 
finds that his pupils are watching for his halting, — and 
he frequently fails, from this very circumstance, to do 
as well as he might. I know of no more pitiable con- 
dition on earth than that of a teacher who is attempt- 
ing to teach what he does not fully understand, while 
he is conscious that his pupils doubt his. ability from a 
frequent detection of his mistakes. 



S6S THi:ORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINC? 

A pleasant lace.— A description. 

VI. Cultivate a pleasant countenance. Frowns and 
scowls always sit with ill grace upon the teacher^s brow. 
I know that the trials and perplexities incident to his 
daily life are eminently fitted ''to chafe his mood'' and 
to provoke his impatience. I know, too, that protracted 
confinement from the pure air and the bright sunlight 
will almost necessarily render the nervous system mor- 
bidly sensitive, and the temper of course extremely 
irritable. The outward exponent of all this is a de- 
jected and perhaps an angry countenance. The eye- 
brows are drawn up so that the forehead is deeply and 
prematurely furrowed, while the angles of the mouth 
are suffered to drop downward as if in token of utter 
despair. By and by the roguishness of some unlucky 
urchin disturbs the current of his thoughts, — and sud- 
denly the brow is firmly knitted with transverse 
channels, the nostrils are distended, the jaws are firmly 
closed, the lips are compressed, the cheeks are flushed, 
and the eyes almost emit sparks from the pent-up fire 
within him. For the next half-hour he frowns on all 
about him. The children at first are awed by such a 
threatening aspect, — but soon they become accustomed to 
it, and the terrible very naturally gives nlace to the 
ridiculous. 

No man has a moral right to render those uncomfort- 
able who surround him by habitually covering his facq 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 3G9 

Wrong to frown.— Sympathy between the heart and the countenance. 

with the looks of discontent and moroseness. It is 
peculiarly wrong for the teacher to do it. It is for him 
to present an example of self-government under all cir- 
cumstances so that be can consistently enforce the duly 
of self-control upon the young. It is for him to show 
himself a man of principle, of benevolence, of cheerful 
devotion to his duty, however full of trials that duty 
may be ; and in no way can he do this more eltcctually 
than by an amiable and engaging countenance. A 
peevish, frowning teacher is very likely to produce 
petulance and sallenness iu his pupils ; while a cordial 
smile, like the genial beam of the spring-day sun, not 
only sheds a welcome light on all around, but imparts 
a blessed heat which jienetrates the frigidity of the 
heart, dissipates the cheerless mists that hover there, 
and warms the generous affections into life and beauty. 
We ai'e so constituted that the inward and the out- 
ward sympathize with each other. Solomon says, ^^A 
merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance," — and I 
may venture to add, and with almost as much truth, a 
cheerful countenance maketh a merry heart. An honest 
attempt to bless others with the sight of a countenance 
that is expressive of content and patience is an act so 
praiseworthy in itself that it will never go unrewarded. 
The gratifying response which such a countenance is 
sure to call forth from others, brings with it a \\q\x 



^70 THEORY AND PRACTICE Ot TEACfilJS'G 

A question.— Yes.— Carlyle.— Means recommended. 

i-eveiine of inward enjoyment. He, therefore, who 
habitually bears about with him a sad or an angry 
countenance, while he constantly impairs the happiness 
of others, lacks at the same time an important instru- 
mentality for securing his own. 

But the question will arise, — can a man gain such 
ascendency over himself as to control the expression of 
his countenance ? I answer, without hesitation, Yes. 
*^ Whatever ought to be done, can be done.^^ It is not 
perfectly easy to do it, especially for the teacher. Still, 
self-control — full, complete self-control — is his appro- 
priate duty as well as privilege. He must, as Carlyle 
quaintly enjoins, *^' learn to devour the chagrins of his 
lot.^' He must calculate beforehand that every day 
will bring its cares and its trials; but he should daily 
resolve that they shall never take him by surprise, nor 
betray him into sudden impatience. Each morning as 
he walks to the scene of his labors, he should fortify 
himself against sudden anger or habitual moroseness on 
this wise : ''l^o doubt this day some untoward occur- 
rence will transpire, calculated to try my patience and 
to provoke me to fretful words and angry looks. All 
my past experience leads me to expect this. But this 
day I will try to resist the temptation to this weakness. 
I will try to be self-possessed. If any child is vicious, 
or fretful, or dull, or even impudent, I will endeavor to 



IriSCfiLLAKEOUB SUGGEStlOKS otl 



I'll try.— A victory.— Art of illustrating,— illustrated. 



show that I can command myself. If I feel some angry 
passion enkindling within me, I will stop and tliink, 
and I will endeavor to smile before I speak. If I can 
to-day gain the victory over impatience, and can main- 
tain an even and cheerful temper, and express it 
constantly in my countenance, it will be easier to do it 
to-morrow. At all events, Fll tnj.'' 

Taking hold thus in earnest, any man may soon be 
his own master. He can gain the victory. If he can 
do it, he ought to do it. Hence I urge it as a duty. 
Nor is it merely a duty. It is a high privilege. A 
complete victory for a single day will bring its own 
reward. A man who feels that he has risen above his 
temptation can return to his rest with a light and happy 
heart. Sleep to him will be sweet, and he will arise on 
the morrow with renewed strength for the fresh con- 
flict,— and in the moral as well as in the literal warfare, 
every contest which ends in victory gives additional 
strength to the victor, while it weakens and disheartens 
his enemy. 

YII. Stiichj to acquire the art of aptly illustrating a 
difficult subject. Some teachers content themselves 
with answering in the precise language of the book 
whenever a question for information is propounded. 
This however is by no means sufficient, even when the 
language of the book is strictly accurate; much less 



S73 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHiJ^a 

Lesson in pliilosopliy.— Media. 

wheii the language is so vague as to convey no definite 
idea to the mind either of the learner or the teacher. 
On the other hand, a man who is apt to teacli will 
devise some ingenious method of enlightening the mind 
of his pupil, so that he shall lay hold of the idea as 
with a manly grasp, and make it his own forever. 

This point will, perhaps, be best illustrated by an 
example. A young man was employed to take charge 
of a school for a few days during a temporary illness of 
the regular instructor. He was a good scholar, as the 
world would say, and was really desirous to answer the 
expectation of his employers. After the regular teacher 
had so far recovered his health as to be able to leave his 
room, he walked one pleasant day to the school to see 
what success attended the labors of the new incumbent. 
A class was reciting in natural philosophy. The sub- 
ject under consideration was — the obstacles whicli 
impede the motion of machinery. The attraction of 
gravity, as one of these, was pretty easily disposed of ; 
for the class had before been instructed on that point. 
Friction came next. Here, too, the pupils, having had 
some practical exj3erience of their own, in dragging 
their sleds, in skating, or perhaps in turning a grind- 
stone, found no great difficulty. The book spoke a 
language sufficiently clear to be understood. Next 
came the '^resistance of the various media", to use the 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 373 



A puzzle.— Further doubts. 



language of the text-book. "Yes/' said the teacher, 
as one of the pupils gravely quoted this language 
^'that has no inconsiderable effect." 

'^The 'resistance of the various media ^ ? "" — repeated 
one of the boys inquiringly, "1 do not know as I un- 
derstand what media means." 

"A medium is that in which a body moves," was the 
ready reply which the teacher read from the book. 

Pupil. " A medium ? " 

Teacher. " Yes ; we say mediuyn when we mean but 
one, and media when we mean more than one." 

Pupil. " When we mean but one ? " 

Teacher. ''•'Yes; medium is singular — media is 
plural." 

After this discussion, which began in philosophy but 
ended in grammar, the teacher was about to proceed 
with the next question of the book. But the scholar 
was not yet satisfied, and he ventured to press his 
inquiries a little further. 

PupiL " Is this room a medium ?" 

Teacher. ''This room?" 

Pupil. " Yes sir ; you said that a medium was ' that 
in which anybody moves,' and we all move in tliis room." 

Teacher. " Yes, but medium does not mean a room ; 
it is the substance in which a body moves." 

Here the lad looked perplexed and unsatisfied. He 



374 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEAC3IKG 



An interposition.— A smile. 



had no clear idea of the meaning of this new term. 
The teacher looked at his watch and then glanced at 
the remaining pages of the lesson and seemed im- 
patient to proceed, — so the pupil forbore to inquire 
further. 

The regular teacher, who had listened to the discus- 
sion with no ordinary interest, both because he admired 
the inquisitiveness of the boy, and because he was 
curious to discover how far the new incumbent pos- 
sessed the power of illustration, here interposed. 

^^John,^^ — taking his watch in his hand — ^^ would 
this watch continue to go if I should drop it into a pail 
of water ? '^ 

*^I should think it would not long,^^ said John, after 
a little reflection. 

^'^ Why not?'' said his teacher, as he opened his 
watch. 

^^ Because the water would get round the wheels and 
stop it, 1 should think," said John. 

^' How would it be if I should drop it into a quart of 
molasses ? " 

The boys laughed. 

'^'^ Or into a barrel of tar ?^* 

The boys still smiled. 

'^^ Suppose I should force it, while open, into a 
quantity of lard.'' 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 375 

Light breaks in.— The class proceed.— The difference. 

Here the boys laughed heartily, while Joliii said, 
'^ The watch would not go in any of these articles/' 

^' Articles f " said his teacher, " why not say media f " 

John's eye glistened as he caught the idea. ^^ 0, I 
understand it now." 

His teacher then said that many machines worked in 
air, — then the air was the medium. A fish swims in 
water, — water is his medium. A fish could hardly swim 
in molasses or tar. " Now,"' inquired he, " why not V 

^^ Because of the resistance of the medium,^' said 
John, with a look of satisfaction. 

'^^Now why will the watch go in air and not in 
water ? " 

" Because the water is more dense,'' said John 
promptly. 

'^ Then upon what does the resistance of a medium 
depend ?" 

Here the wqw teacher interposed and said that was 
the next question in the book, and he was just going to 
ask it himself. The regular teacher put his watch 
into his pocket and became a spectator again, and the 
lesson proceeded with unwonted vivacity. The dif- 
ference between these two teachers mainly consisted 
in the fact that one had the ingenuity to devise an 
expedient to meet a difficulty whenever occasion re- 
quired, — the other had not. 



376 THEORY AND PEACTICE OF TEACHING 

Study expedients.— A moral impression.— Set lessons not useful. 

Now in order to teach well a man should diligently 
seek for expedients. He should endeavor to foresee 
the very points where the learner will stumble, and pro- 
vide himself with the means of rendering timely aid. 
If an object cannot be described in words, let it be 
compared with what it resembles, or with what it con- 
trasts. If it be an object of sense, and words and com- 
parisons fail to describe it, — in ^ne absence of apparatus 
to represent it, let the teacher spring to the black board 
and execute a hasty drawing of it. In this way the 
construction or the working of a machine, the form of 
a bone or the action of a joint, the shape of a town or 
the plan of a building, — in short, almost every subject 
that involves the relations of form, size, proportion, 
quantity, or number, will admit of visible illustration. 
He is the successful teacher who is able at the moment 
to seize upon the best expedient, and render it subser- 
vient to his purpose. 

VIII. Tahe advantage of unusual occurrences to make 
a moral or religious impression. In a former chapter 
I have urged it as a part of the teacher^s work to cul- 
tivate and strengthen both the moral sentiments and the 
religious feelings of the members of his school. This 
is not most effectually done by a formal mode of speak- 
ing to them on these subjects. If a particular hour is 
set apart for formal lectures on their duty to their fel- 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 377 



Tlie fit occasion.— Example I. 



low-men and their obligations to God, they are very 
apt to fortify their sensibilities against the most faithful 
appeals, and thus render them powerless. The wise 
teacher will watch for the fit opportunity, and, just at 
the moment when the heart is prepared by some suit- 
able occurrence, — when by some exhibition of the 
Creator's power it is awed into reverence or softened 
into submission ; or by some display of his goodness it 
is warmed into gratitude or animated with delight, — 
with a few words, seasonably and " fitly spoken ", he 
fixes the impression forever. Speaking at the right 
time, every ear listens, and every heart feels. 

Perhaps many of my readers can revert to some 
season in their childhood, endeared to them by a precious 
recollection of golden words thus opportunely uttered, 

words fraught with truth which in after-life has had 

an unspeakable influence in tiie formation of their 
character. One or two examples connected with my 
own experience may be presented more fully to illus- 
trate my meaning ; while at the same time they may 
afford, it is hoped, some valuable hints for the encour- 
agement and guidance of such young teachers as desire 
in this way to make themselves the instruments of last- 
ing benefit to the young. 

Example I. — I can never forget— nor would I if I 
could— a lesson impressed upon my own youthful mind. 



378 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

A thunder-storm. —Alarm. —Confusion. 

conveying the truth that we Jire constantly dependent 
upon our Heavenly Father for protection. In a plain 
country school-house some twenty-five children, in- 
cluding myself, were assembled with our teacher on the 
afternoon of a summer's day. We had been as happy 
and as thoughtless as the sportive lambs that cropped 
the clover of the neighboring hill-side. Engrossed with 
study or play, — for at this distance of time it is impos- 
sible to tell which, — we had not noticed the low 
rumbling of the distant thunder till a sudden flash of 
lightning arrested our attention. Immediately the sun 
was veiled by the cloud, and a corresponding gloom 
settled upon every face within. The elder girls with 
the characteristic thoughtfulness of woman hastily 
inquired whether they should not make the attempt to 
lead their younger brothers and sisters to the paternal 
roof before the bursting of the storm. For a moment 
our little community was thrown into utter confusion. 
The teacher stepped hastily to the door to survey more 
perfectly the aspect of the western heavens. Imme- 
diately returning he signified to the children that there 
would not be time for them to reach their homes before 
the tempest would be upon them. Oppressed with 
dread, — for it is no uncommon thing for children in 
the country to be terrified by lightning, — some of the 
youngest of us clung to our older brothers or sisters. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIOISrS 379 

Teacher's self-possession.— A fearful tempest.— Awful pause. 

while others, being the sole representatives of their 
family in the school, for the first time felt their utter 
loneliness in the midst of strangers, and gave utterance 
to their feelings in audible sighs or unequivocal sobs. 

The teacher, meanwhile, with an exemplary calmness 
and self-possession, closed the windows and the doors 
and then seated himself quite near the younger pupils, 
to await the result. The thick darkness gathered about 
us as if to make the glare of the lightning by contrast 
more startling to our vision ; while the loud thunder 
almost instantly followed, as it were the voice of God. 
The wind howled through the branches of a venerable 
tree near by, bending its sturdy trunk and threatening 
to break asunder the cords which bound it to its 
mother earth. An angry gust assailed the humble 
building where we were sheltered ; it roared down the 
capacious chimney, violently closed a shutter that 
lacked a fastening, breaking the glass by its concussion, 
and almost forced in the frail window-sashes on the 
westerly side of the room. Quicker and more wild the 
lightnings glared — flash after flash — as if the heavens 
were on fire ; louder and nearer the thunder broke 
above our heads, while the inmates of the room, save 
the teacher, were pale with terror. 

At this moment tliere was a sudden cessation of the 
war of elements, — a hush — almost a proplietic pause ! 



380 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Teacher's words.— Rain.— Sunshine. 

It was that brief interval which precedes the falling 
torrent. A dread stillness reigned within the room. 
Every heart beat hurriedly, and every countenance told 
the consternation that was reigning within. It was an 
awful moment ! 

With a calm voice, breathing a subdued and confiding 
sj^irit, the teacher improved this ojiportunity to impress 
uj^on our young minds a great truth. '' Fear not, 
children," said he, ''it is your Heavenly Father that 
sends the storm as well as the sunshine and the gentle 
breeze. You have been just as much in his power all 
day as you are at this moment. He has been as near 
you, supporting you, supplying you with breath, with 
life, all through the pleasant morning ; but then you 
did not see him. He is just as able to protect you now, 
for 'Not a sparrow falls to the ground without his 
notice,^ — and he ruleth the storm and ' rideth ujoon the 
wings of the wind.' We should ever feel willing to 
trust him ; for he is ever able to grant us deliverance 
from all our dangers. God is here now to protect us."*' 

Just as he had finished these words the rain began to 
fall. First the drops were few and scattered ; but soon 
the windows of heaven were opened and the thirsty 
ground was abundantly satisfied. The sound of the 
thunder became fainter and fainter as the cloud passed 
away ; the sun burst out again in renewed splendor ; 



iirSCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIOXS 381 

Bright faces.— The Bible speaks. 

the full drops glittered in his beams upon the grass ; 
the bii'ds began their songs ; the rainbow spanned the 
eastern hills ; and our hearts, taught by the timely in- 
struction of a good man, began to expand with eager 
gratitude for our nreservation by the hand of our 
Heavenly Father. 

The remainder of the afternoon passed happily away, 
and when our books were laid aside and we were ready 
to burst out of the room to enjoy the refreshing air and 
participate in the general joy, the teacher, taking the 
Bible from the desk, asked us to remain quiet a mo- 
ment while he would read a few Avords that he hoped 
we should never forget. 

The passage was the following, from the Goth 
Psalm : — 

By terrible tliinri'S in rig-liteousness wilt thou answer us, O God of our sal- 
vation ; who art tlie confidence of all the ends of the earth, and of them 
that are afar off upon the sea. Which by his strength setteth fast the 
mountains ; being girded with power : which stilleth the noise of the seas, ■ 
the noise cf their waves, and the tumult of the people. 

They also that dwell in the uttermost parts are afi'aid at thy tokens: 
thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening to rejoice. 

Thou visitest the earth and waterest it : thou greatly'enrichest it with 
the river of God, which is f;iU cf water: thou preparest them corn, when 
thou hast so provided for it. 

Thou waterest tlie ridges thereof abundantly : thou settlest the furrows 
thereof: thou makest it soft with shOAvers: thou blessest the springing 
thereof. 

Tho\i crownest the year with thy goodness ; and tliy paths drop fatness. 



oSi THEORY AKJ; PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Words ntly spoken.— The effect. 

They drop upon tlie pastures cf the wilderness : and the little hills rejoice 
on every side. 

The pastures are clothed with flocks ; the valleys also are covered over 
with corn ; they shout for joy, they also sing-. 

After closing the book tlie teacher said; ^'^ Go out 
now, children, and witness how perfectly these words 
have been fulfilled toward ns this afternoon, — and from 
this day's mercies, learn hereafter to trust God as con- 
fidently in the storm, when he displays his power by 
his outward ^tokens', as when he kindly smiles upon 
you in the beams of the glorious sun, or gently breathes 
upon you in the morning breeze/' 

We went forth bounding in gladness and gratitude 
and saw the ^^ outgoings of the evening to rejoice", — 
^^the pastures clothed with flocks", — ^'the valleys cov- 
ered over with corn ", — '^ the little hills rejoicing on 
every side"; — we heard also the general shout for joy, 
— and we felt as we never before had felt, a deep, 
thorough, abiding conviction of the truth that God is 
our father and our friend ; the God of our SALVATiOiq'. 

I know not how soon these impressions faded from 
the minds of the other children, — but for myself I can 
say, that from that time to the present, whenever I 
have been exposed to apparent danger from the im- 
pending tempest, the warring elements, or the ravages 
of disease^ the teachings of that hour have always re- 



M:tscELLAN"Eous sirG(5i:sTloKg 08^ 

Blessed memories.— Example II.— A dark day.— Lull of the storm. 

vived in my mind to soothe my troubled spirit and to 
reassure my faith and confidence in the presence of an 
all-sufficient and merciful Preserver. A thousand times 
have I devoutly blessed the memory of that faithful 
teacher, for having so early and so happily turned my 
thoughts upward to Him in whom '* we live, and move, 
and have our being." 

Example II. — It was in the afternoon of a gloomy 
day in the latter part of November, when the pupils, 
consisting of some fifty boys belonging to a school in 
a pleasant seaport town in New England, were told by 
their teaclier a few minutes before the usual hour that 
they might lay aside their studies and prepare for dis. 
mission. During the early part of the day there had 
been one of those violent southeast rain-storms so com- 
mon upon the seacoast at that season of the year. It 
is well known to the observing mariner that a storm 
from the southeast never continues beyond twelve or 
fifteen hours ; and when the violence of the storm 
abates it is a common remark of the sailor that '' The 
northwester iti not long in debt to the southeaster." 
Previous to this change of wind, however, there is what 
is expressively termed the ^^lull of the storm", — a 
period when the rain ceases to fall, the wind dies away 
to a perfect calm, the barometer is suddenly depressed, 
the clouds hover almost upon the face of the earth. 



384 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Change of wind.— Early dismission. 

shutting out the light of the sun, and causing a cheer- 
less damp to settle upon everything terrestrial, and a 
dreai-y gloom to enshroud the mind itself. AVhen the 
wind changes these clouds are not gradually dissolved 
and broken up, so that the eye can catch transient 
glimpses of the blue sky beyond, as after a snow-storm 
in winter ; but the dark drapery is suddenly lifted up 
as if by an unseen hand, and the western sky, from the 
horizon upwards, is left more bright and more charm- 
ing than ever to refresh the eye and reanimate the 
soul. 

It was such a day as before remai'ked when the 
pupils of this school — partly because of the darkness 
in the schoolroom, and partly because of their pro- 
tracted confinement within a close apartment during a 
gloomy afternoon — were a little earlier than usual 
about to be dismissed. The pupils all secerned to wel- 
come the happy release that awaited them, — and in 
their eagerness to escape from confinement they very 
naturally neglected to observe their accustomed regard 
for quiet and order in laying aside their books. It 
was, however, a fixed habit with the teacher never to 
give the signal for leaving the room till all the pupils 
had taken the proper attitude for passing out with reg- 
ularity, and then had composed themselves to perfect 
silence. On this occasion perhaps two minutes passed 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 385 

Impatience.— Light breaks in.— Tlie " g-arment of praise."— Song-. 

away while the boys were gradually^ almost impa- 
tiently, bringing themselves to a compliance with this 
rule of the teacher. 

During this interval of waiting, the cloud, unper- 
ceived by the teacher, had been slowly raised up from 
the western horizon, just in time -to allow the setting 
sun to bestow a farewell glance upon the sorrowing 
world at his leave-taking. Through the Venetian 
blinds that guarded the windows toward the west, the 
celestial light gleamed athwart the appartment, and 
painted the opposite wall in front of the pupils with 
streaks of burnished gold ! In an instant every coun- 
tenance was changed. A smile now joyously played 
where before sadness and discontent had held their 
moody reign. The teacher was reminded by all these 
circumstances of the beautiful language of the prophet, 
which promised the gift of ^^the garment of pi^aise for 
the spirit of heaviness". What could be more appro- 
priate on this occasion than a song of praise? Without 
speaking a single word, the teacher commenced one 
of the little songs already familiar to the whole 
school 

Lo tlie heavens are breaking 

Pure and briglit above ; 
Life and liglit awaking. 

Murmur— (tO(Z is love. 

God is love. 



SS6 THEdtlY AND PRACTICE OF TEACfilN(J 



Singing with tlie spli-it.— An imprf sslon.— Gort is good. 



Round yon pine-clad mountain, 

FIOAvs a golden flood ; 
Hear the sparkling fountain, 

Whisper— GofZ is gooch 

God is good. 

Wake, my heart, and springing 

Spread thy wings above,— 
Soaring still and singing, 

God is ever good. 

God is good. 

Instantly every voice that had ever sung now uttered 
heartfelt praise. The attendant circumstances, taken 
at the happy moment, furnished such an impressive 
commentary upon the import of the words that they 
were felt, as they never before had been felt, to be the 
words of precious truth. Every heart throbbed in 
unison with the sentiment. At the close of the song 
there was profound silence in the room. After a 
mementos pause, during which the truth that God is 
good seemed to pervade each mind and hold it in silent 
reverence, — the signal for departure was given. One 
after another the boys passed from their seats with a 
light and careful step, as if noise and haste would be a 
desecration both of the time and place, — and when they 
reached the open air, refreshing and exhilarating as it 
was, there was no boisterous shout, no rude mirth ; 
each took his homeward course, apparently with a new 
and lively conviction that God is good. 



iriSCELtAiq'EOUS SUGGESTIONS 'M7 

other occasions. 

It has always been a source of pleasure to that teacher 
to recall from the ''buried past ^' the associations con- 
nected with that delightful hour and that charming 
song ; and it has been among the most gratifying inci- 
dents of his experience as a teacher to hear more than 
one of those pupils in later life recur to the memory of 
that day, and acknowledge with thankfulness the last- 
ing impressions which then and there were made upon 
their minds. 



It would be easy to furnish examples to almost any 
extent of the manner in which this principle has been 
or may be carried out in practice. The degradation of 
an intoxicated person who may pass the school, — the 
pitiable condition of the man who may wander through 
the streets bereft of his reason, — any instance of sudden 
death in the neighborhood, particularly of a young per- 
son, — the passing of a funeral procession, — in short, 
any occurrence that arrests the attention of the young 
and enlists their feeling, may be seized upon as the 
means of making upon their minds an impression for 
good. The facts developed in many of their lessons, 
too, afford opportunities for incidental moral instruc- 
tion. The adaptation of means to ends, — the evidence 
of design and intelligence displayed in the works of 



2(88 tlfEORY AiiD PRACTICE OF TEACiHHGr 

Teaclier's satisfaction.— Pleasant retrospection. 

creation, — the existence of constant and nniform laws 
as developed in the sciences, all furnish the means of 
leading the young mind to God. 

That teacher will enjoy the richest satisfaction in 
the evening of life, who, in looking back upon his past 
experience, shall be conscious that he has improved 
every opportunity which God has given him to turn the 
youthful affections away from the things of earth to 
seek a worthier object in things above. 



CHAPTER X 

THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 

IT is proverbial that the jjectmiary compensation of 
the teacher is, in most places, far below the proper 
standard. It is very much to be regretted that an em- 
ployment so important in all its bearings should be so 
poorly rewarded. In New England there are many 
young women who, having spent some time in teaching, 
have left that occupation to go into the large manufac- 
turing establishments as laborers, simply because they 
could receive a higher compensation. I have known 
several instances in which young ladies in humble 
circumstances have left teaching to become domestics, 
thus performing the most ordinary manual labor be- 
cause they could receive better pay ; that is, the farm- 
ers and mechanics of the district could afford to pay 
more liberally for washing and ironing, for making 
butter and cheese, for sweeping floors and cleaning 
paint, than they could for educating the immortal 
minds of their children ! 

Nor is this confined to the female sex. Young 
mechanics and farmers, as well as those employed in 

mi^uufacturing, frequently receive higher wages than 

(389) 



390 THEORY AN^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Driving pegs.— Injustice.— Extra expense. 

the common-school teacher in the same district. Many 
a young man who has only genius enough to drive the 
pegs of a shoe in a regular row, and skill enough to 
black the surface of the article when it is completed, 
having spent but a few weeks in learning his trade, 
receives more money for his work than he who, after 
having spent months, or even years, in gaining the 
requisite qualifications, labors to polish that nobler 
material, the human soul. 

The injustice of this becomes more apparent when 
we bear in mind that public opinion demands, and 
justly too, that the teacher should be not only gentle- 
manly in his manners, but better clad than the mere 
laborer, — thus throwing upon him a greater burden 
without affording him the means of sustaining it. The 
female teacher of a district school, in order to be re- 
spectable, must be much more expensively dressed than 
the domestic in the family where she boards ; and is 
thus compelled to consume most of her receipts upon 
her wardrobe, — while the domestic is able to place sur- 
plus money at interest in the Savings Bank. This 
injustice has so often been laid before the people, and 
yet has been so long continued, that many have given 
up in despair, and abandoned an employment that has 
yielded so little, choosing rather to engage in that lower 
service which is so much better paid. 



THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 391 

Living by wits.— Improvement. 

This sufficiently explains why so many unqualified 
teachers have been found in our common schools. Men 
of talents and ability being tempted to other employ- 
ments have left the field unoccupied ; and those men 
who have failed to gain a comfortable living by their 
hands have been allowed to try the experiment of 
supporting life hy their tvits, — that is, by becoming 
teachers ! 

Such has been the case for a long time past ; and, 
though in many quarters the peo23le are beginning to 
open their eyes to their true interest/ and are gradually 
and commendably coming up to their duty, yet for 
some time to come the pecuniary compensation will not 
constitute the chief reward of the teacher. If he will 
go cheerfully to his work, and find his daily enjoyment 
in his daily toil, he must have a higher object, some 
more elevating, inspiring motive, than mere money- 
getting. The chief encouragements of the faithful 
teacher lie in another direction. 

It is the objects of the following paragraphs to point 
out some of these encouragements ; for, having in the 
preceding pages required very much at his hands, I feel 
that it is but just that he should be invited to look at 
the brighter side of the picture, so that when he is 
ready to sink under the responsibilities of his position, 
or to yield to the obstacles that oppose his progress, he 



392 THEORY AND PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

Means of mental growth.— Means of moral growth. 

may have something to animate his soul and to nerve 
him anew for the noble conflict. 

I. Tlie teachcr^s employment affords the means of m- 
tellectual growth. If a man teaches as he should teach 
he must of necessity improve himself. Teaching, un- 
derstand ingiy pursued, gives accuracy. I know it is 
possible for a man to be a mere schoolmaster — 2^> 'peda- 
gogue, without any self-improvement. But I am speak- 
ing of the faithful, devoted teacher, — the man who 
studies, reflects, invents. Such a man learns more than 
his pupils. Every time he takes a class through any 
branch of study, he does it more skilfully, more thor- 
oughly than before. He brings some fresh illustration 
of it, presents some new view of it, and hence takes a 
lively interest in it himself, and awakens a new zeal 
among his pupils. Measuring himself by his new suc- 
cess, he feels a consciousness of growth, of progress. 
This consciousness is a precious reward. 

II. The teacher's employment affords the means of 
moral growth. Brought constantly in contact with 
those who need a careful guidance, he feels impelled to 
earnest effort in order to obtain the mastery over him- 
self as the best means of gaining complete influence 
over others. Studying the weak points in their char- 
acter, he is constantly reminded of those in his own ; 
and self-knowledge is the first step toward self-improve- 



THE KEVVARDS OF THE TEACHER 393 

Illustrated.— Moral power. 

ment. Beginning in the feebleness of inexperience, he 
bolsters np his anthority at first by a freqnent resort to 
force ; but as he goes on he finds himself gradu- 
ally gaining such ascendency over the vicious as 
to control them quite as effectually by milder means. 
At first, easily excited to anger or impatience, he 
frequently indulged in severe language when it was 
unnecessary, — but by careful discipline he has learned 
to '^set a watch before his mouth and to keep the door 
of his lips^\ Encouraged by one victory over himself 
he is prepared for another. Having learjied by self- 
discipline to control his outward acts, he next attempts 
the mastery of his thoughts. He soon finds that his 
moral power over others is very much increased. 
Somehow — though perhaps he cannot yet tell the reason 
why — he finds he can secure obedience with half the 
effort formerly required, — he gains the love of his 
pupils more readily, — and with the exception now and 
then of an extreme case, he finds that he excites a 
deeper interest than ever before in the whole round of 
duty among the scholars. Why is this ? lie asks, — and 
the consciousness of increased moral i^oioer rising up 
within him is a source of the highest satisfaction. 
Pecuniary emolument sinks into nothing considered as 
a reward when compared with a conscious victory over 
himself. 



394 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Progress In the art of teaching.— Pupils' growth of mind. 

III. A consciousness of wiprovement in the art of 
teaching is another reward. Such improvement will 
follow as a matter of course from his self-improvement 
in the particulars just named. As his own mind ex- 
pands he feels a new impulse to exert himself to interest 
others in the subjects he teaches. He soon comes to 
look upon the Avork of instruction, not as a mere 
mechanical business to be done in a formal way, but as 
a noble art based upon certain great principles that are 
capable of being understood and applied. He employs 
all his ingenuity to discover the natural order of pre- 
senting truth to the mind, — to ascertain the precise 
degree of aid the learner needs, and the point where 
the teacher should stop. He studies carefully the 
proper motives to be presented as incentives to exertion. 
Interested in his labor as a great work, looking upon 
his influence as telling upon all future time, he devotes 
himself daily with new zeal, and is reioardecl with the 
consciousness of new success. 

IV. The teacher is 2^ermitted also to witness the con- 
stant groiuth of mind among his piqxils. I say constant, 
because the teacher is not obliged to labor without see- 
ing immediate results. The minister of religion may 
sometimes sow the seed of the good word, while the 
fruit does not appear for a long season. Sometimes a 
spiritual apathy prevails, so that the most faithful warn- 



THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 395 



Immediate results. 



ings and the most earnest appeals seem to fall jDOwerless 
upon the conscience ; and he is led almost to despair of 
ever being able to break' the deathlike slumber. It is 
not thus with the teacher. His labor tells immediately 
Upon the young mind. Even while he is yet sjjeaking 
he is gratified with observing the souFs expansion as it 
grasj^s and assimilates some new idea which he pre- 
sents. From day to day, as he meets his classes, he 
■sees how they go on from strength to strength, — at first, 
indeed, with the halting, tottering step of the feeble 
babe, but soon with the firm and confident tread of the 
vigorous youth. 

A teacher who is for several years employed in his 
vocation is often astonished at the rapidity with which 
the young, who come to him as mere children, grow 
into men and women, and take their places on the stage 
of life as prominent actors. Some of them distinguish 
themselves in the arts ; some become noted for their 
attainments in science ; some receive the honors of 
office and become leaders in civil affairs ; some gain 
eminence as professional men ; and very likely a large 
portion of them are engaged in the various departments 
of honorable industry. Wherever they are, and what- 
ever they are, they are now exerting a powerful influence 
in the community. They have grown up under his 
eye, and have been essentially shaped by his plastic 



396 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



" They were my pupils."— Useful calling-.— Professor Agnew. 

hand. He looks upon them almost with the interest 
and pride of a father. He counts them as his jewels ; 
and when he hears of their snccesS;, their usefulness, 
and their honors, his heart leaps witliin him, as he 
thinks, " Tlicy weremy piqnls/' Even though he may 
have wasted the strength of his best days in the service, 
tvliat a reward is f his for ilie icaclicv ! 

V. The ieaclier has ihe consciousness of heing engaged 
171 a useful and Itonorahle calling. What though he 
ma}' not become rich in this world's goods ? .Who 
would not 2^i'<3fer above houses and lands, — infinitely 
above all the wealth of earth, tl:e consciousness of be- 
ing engaged in a work of usefulness ? Man was made 
for usefulness, — and who would not desire to answer 
the design of his creation ? 

My pen is too feeble to attempt to portray tlie useful- 
ness of the faithful teacher. He educates the immortal 
mind, — wakes it to thought, — trains it to discipline — 
self-discipline, — moves it to truth and virtue, — fills it 
with longings for a more perfect state, and sends it forth 
to exert its power for good thi'ough all coming time ! 
^' To this end, ^' in the glowing language of Professor 
Agnew, ^'he communicates a knowledge of letters, 
opens out gradually before the child the book of nature 
and the literature of the world ; he disciplines his mind 
and teaches him how to gather knowledge from every 



'THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER; 397 



Educates tlie mind.— Trains tiie affections.— Tlie infant becomes a man. 

source ; he endeavors to impart quickness and reten- 
tiveness of memory, to cultivate a refined and well- 
regulated imagination, to task and thus to give vigor to 
his reasoning powers. He points out the appropriate 
objects of the several affections, and the proper exercise 
of the passions ; he gives lessons to conscience derived 
from the pure fountain of God's own revelation, and 
teaches him to subject his own will to the Highest 
Will. He instructs him in the various sciences and 
thus displays before him worlds of wondrous interest, 
and invests him with the sources and means of pure 
enjoyment. He trains him for the sweet sympathies 
of social life ; and unfolds before him the high behests 
of duty — duty to himself, his fellow-creatures, his 
family, his God. 

*^ Under such a tuition behold the helpless infant 
grown to manhood's pr-ime, — a body well developed, 
strong, and active ; a mind symmetrically unfolded, and 
powers of intellection closely allied to those of the spirits 
in celestial spheres. He becomes a husband and a 
father ; in these and in all the relations of life he per- 
forms well his part. Above all, he is a Christian, with 
well-trained affections and a tender conscience, 
supremely loving God, maintaining a constant warfare 
with the world, the flesh, and the devil, — growing up 
into the stature of a perfect man in Christ, and antici- 



398 tHEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIKG 

A transit.— No limits to usefulness.— Honorable.— Wliy ? 

pating the fullness of joy and pleasure for evermore 
which are at God's right hand. The time of his de- 
parture at length arrives; he has fought the good fight, 
he has finished his course, and he goes to obtain his 
crown and to attune his harp, and forever to dwell on 
the hills of light and love, where angels gather immor- 
tality. Oh, what a transit ; from the dependent help- 
lessness of infancy to the glory of a seraph ; from mind 
scarcely manifested, to mind ranging over the immensity 
of Jehovah's empire, and rising in the loftiest exercises 
of reason and affection ! And how much has the faith- 
ful teacher had to do in fitting him for the blissful man- 
sions of the shies ! " 

If such be the teacher's work, where is the limit to 
his usefulness ? Yet he may do this not for one merely, 
but for scores, or even hundreds. Eternity alone can 
display the immeasurable, inconceivable usefulness of 
one devoted teacher. 

And is not the teacher's calling honorable 9 It is, — 
for its usefulness makes it honorable. To scatter the 
light of truth is always honorable. So some of the 
greatest and best men the world ever saw have believed, 
and have illustrated their faith by their practice. Con- 
fucius, Socrates, Seneca, Aristotle, and Plato were 
specimens of the teachers of ancient date. Roger 
Ascham, John Milton, Francke, Pestalozzi, Arnold, 



THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER S99 



Our great men began as teachers.— Gratitude of pupils. 



and a host of otherS;, have adorned the profession in 
later times. Yet these are men who have taught the 
world to think. Their works live after them. — and will 
continue to live, when the proud fame of the mighty- 
warriors who have marked their course in blood shall 
have perished from the earth. 

If it were necessary and not invidious, how many 
distinguished men in our own country could be men- 
tioned who have been teachers of the young, or who 
are still engaged as such. Besides those who have 
made teaching the business of their lives, how many 
have been temporarily employed in this calling. Some 
of our presidents, many of our governors, most of our 
jurists and divines, — indeed, some of every profession, 
^' and of the chief women not a /ew"' — have first dis- 
tinguished themselves as school-teachers. Well may 
teachers, then, regard their profession as an honorable 
one; always remembering, however, that ^^It is not 
the position which makes the man honorable, but the 
man the position. ^^ 

VI. Tlie teacher enjoys the grateful rememhrance of 
Ms pupils a7id of their friends. When a distinguished 
writer said, '^ God be thanked for the gift of mothers 
and school masters, '' he expressed but the common sen- 
timent of the human heart. The name of parent justly 
enkindles the warmest emotions in the heart of him 



400 THEORY AKD PllACTlCE OF tE ACHING 

Gratitude to parents first. 

who has gone out from his native home to engage in 
the busy scenes of the work-day world ; and when 
sometimes he retires from the companionship of new- 
made friends to recall the picture of the past and the 
loved of other days, — to think 

" 01 childish joys, wlien hounding boyhood Icnew 
No grief, but chased the gorgeous butterfly 
And gambold witli the breeze, that tossed about 
His silken curls—" 

how sweetly do the gentle influences of home and child- 
hood, with all their tender and hallowed associations, 
come stealing over the soul ! The world is forgotten ; 
care may not intrude upon this sacred hour ; objects of 
sense are unheeded ; the call to pleasure is disre- 
garded ; — while the rapt soul, introverted — transported — 
dwells with unspeakable delight upon its consecrated 
recollection of all that is venerable, all that is sacred in 
the name of parent. At this favored hour, how the 
heart swells at the thought of a mother's love ! The 
smiles, the kind words, the sympathy, the counsels, the 
prayers, the tears, — how fondly the memory treasures 
them all up, and claims them for its own ! And 
though Death may have long since intruded, and con- 
signed that gentle form to the cold earth, rudely 
sundering the cherished bonds of affection, and leaving 
the hearth- stone desolate, — though change may have 



THET REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 401 

A devoted mother.— Teacher next to the parent. 

brought strangers to fell the favorite tree, to remove the 
ancient landmarks, to lay waste the pleasant places, 
and even to tread thoughtlessly by the humble mound 
that marks the revered spot where ^'departed worth is 
laid," — though Time, 'Svitli his effacing fingers," may 
have been busy in obliterating the impressions of child- 
hood from the mind, or in burying them deeply beneath 
the rubbish of perplexing cares, — still the true heart 
never tires with the thought of a fond parent, nor ever 
ceases to '' thank God upon every remembrance " of a 
pious, devoted mother ! 

Thus it should ever be. Nothing on earth should be 
allowed to claim the gratitude which is justly due to 
judicious parents. But the faithful, devoted teacher, 
the former of youthful character and the guide of 
youthful study, will be sure to have the next place in 
the grateful heart. AVhether the young man treads the 
deck of the noble ship in his lonely watch as she 
proudly walks the waters by night, — or journeys among 
strangers in foreign lands ; — wherever he goes, or how- 
ever employed, — as often as his thoughts revisit the 
scenes of his childhood, and dwell with interest upon 
the events that marked his youthful progress, he will 
recur to the old familiar schoolhouse, call up its well 
remembered incidents — its joys and its sorrows — its 
trials and its triumphs — its all-pervading and ever- 



402 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEAOfilKG 

Gratitude of parents.— Example. 

abiding influences, and devoutly thank God for the gift 
of ii faithful, self denying , ^patient teacher. 

But the teacher is rewarded also by the gratitude of 
parents and friends. Some of the sweetest moments a 
teacher ever experiences are those when a parent takes 
him by the hand, and with cordial sincerity and deep 
emotion thanks him for what he has done for his child. 
It may have been a wayward, thoughtless, perhaps a 
vicious boy, wdiom kind words and a warm heart on the 
part of the teacher have won back to the path of 
rectitude and virtue. 

I have seen an old lady — and I shall never forget the 
sight — bending under the infirmities of age, — blind, and 
yet dependent mainly upon her labor for support, in- 
voking the richest of heaven's blessings upon the head 
of a teacher who, by kindness and perseverance, had 
won back her wayward grandson to obedience and duty. 
How her full soul labored as she described the change 
that had taken place ! Her emotion — too deep for 
utterance in words — found expression only in tears 
that streamed from her sightless eyes ! She felt that 
her boy was again a child of hope and promise, and 
that he might yet be a virtuous and a useful man. The 
world may raise its empty acclamation to honor the 
man of powder and of fame, — it may applaud the states- 
man and weave the chaplet for the conqueror's brow ; 



tHE REWARDS OF THiJ TEACllER 



Widow's g-ratitude.— Approval of Heaven.— The Great Teaelier. 

— but the teacher, humble and obscure though he may 
be, who is the object of the widow's gratitude for being 
the orphan's friend, with the consciousness of deserving 
it, is a happier, I had almost said a greater man. 
Surely he receives a greater reward. 

VII. The faithful teacher enjoys the approval of 
Heaven. He is employed, if he has a right spirit, in a 
heavenly mission. He is doing his Heavenly Father's 
business. That man should be made wiser and happier, 
is the will of Heaven. To this end, the Son of God — 
The Great Teacher — came to bless our race. So far as 
the schoolmaster has the spirit of Jesus, he is engaged 
in the same great work. Heaven regards with com- 
placency the humble efforts of the faithful teacher to 
raise his fellow-beings from the darkness of ignorance 
and the slavery of superstition ; and if a more 
glorious crown is held in reserve for one rather 
than another, it is for him who, uncheered by 
worldly applause, and without the prospect of adequate 
reward from his fellow-men, cheerfully practises the 
self-denial of his master, spending his strength, and 
doing with diligence and patience '^ whatsoever his 
hand findeth to do ", towards raising his fellow-beings 
to happiness and heaven. 

It is such a teacher that the eloquent and gifted Lord 
Brougham describes in the following beautiful language : 



404 TllEdllV AND tRACTlCEl Oi' TfiACJltNG 

An epitaph.— Cease repining. 

*^IIe meditates and prepares, in secret, the plans 
which are to bless mankind ; he slowly gathers around 
him those who are to further their execution, — he 
quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble path, 
laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the 
light all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the 
roots the weeds of vice. His progress is not to be 
compared with anything like the march of the con- 
queror, — but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, 
and to laurels more imperishable than the destroyer of 
his species, the scourge of the world, ever won. Each 
one of these great teachers of the world, possessing his 
soul in peace, performs his appointed course, awaits in 
patience the fulfilment of the promises, and, resting 
from his labors, bequeaths his memory to the genera- 
tion whom his works have blessed, and sleeps under 
the humble, but not inglorious epitaph, commemorating 
' ojie in wJiom mankind lost a friend, and no ma^i got 
rid of an enemy.'" 

In view of what has been said, let the teacher cease 
to repine at his hard lot. Let him cast an occasional 
glance at the bright prospect before him. He deserves, 
to be sure, a higher pecuniary reward than he receives ; 
and he should never cease to press this truth upon the 
community, till talent in teaching is as well compen- 



THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 



405 



Magnify liis office.— How?— Moral recompense. 



sated as talent in any other calling. But whether he 
gains this or not, let him dwell upon the privileges and 
rewards to be found in the calling itself, and take fresh 
encouragement. 

The apostle Paul exhibited great wisdom when he 
said, '^ I magnify mine office." If the foregoing views 
respecting the importance of the teacher^s calling are 
correct, he may safely follow the apostle^s example. 
This is not, however, to be done merely by boastful 
words. No man can elevate himself, or magnify his 
office in public estimation by indulging in empty 
declamation, or by passing inflated resolutions. He 
must /ee/ the dignity of his profession, and show that 
he feels it by unremitted exertions to attain to the 
highest excellence of which he is capable,— animated, 
in'^the midst of his toil, chiefly by the great moral 
recompense which every faithful teacher may hope to 
receive. 

Let every teacher, then, study to improve himself 
intellectually and morally ; let him strive to advance in 
the art of teaching ; let him watch the growth of mind 
under his culture and take the encouragement which 
that affords ; let him consider the usefulness he may 
eflect and the circumstances which make his calling 
honorable ; let him prize the gratitude of his pupils 
and of their parents and friends ; and above all, let him 



406 THEOKY AKD PKACTICE OF TEACHING 

Final reward. 

value the approval of Heaven^ and set a proper estimate 
upon the rewards which another world will unfold to 
him^ — and thus be encouraged to toil on in faithfulness 
and in hope, — till, having finished his course, and being 
gathered to the home of the righteous, he shall meet 
multitudes, instructed by his wise precept, and profited 
by his pure example, who ''shall rise up and call him 
blessed/' 



NOTES 



V-AgQ 21— Professional iyrex)aratio)i. — lu this respect there has 
been immense advance since Mr. Page's time. Most States now 
require a certificate of qualification obtained througli examina- 
tions of considerable tlioroughness, and many cities and villages 
will receive only normal graduates as candidates for positions. 
In New York, no teacher can be employed in the public schools 
unless provided at least with a certificate obtained through the 
" uniform examinations ", the questions for which are prepared 
in the olfice of the Department of Public Instruction and sent to 
the school-commissioners in sealed envelopes, not to be opened 
till the examination begins, at the same hour throughout the 
State. These examinations are graded, and a third-grade certifi- 
cate can be renewed but once. A constant pressure is thus 
exerted upon teachers who are employed to push forward to 
higher qualification, and those who have not sufficient profes- 
sional spirit to do this are dropped from the ranks. The effect 
of these examinations in raising the wages of teachers has been 
marked. By discriminating between those who mean to make 
teaching a business, and those who take it up as a make-shift, the 
former begin to receive the consideration and the compensation 
that go with skilled labor. The advance begun in 1846 (see Note 
to page 70) is now more rapid than ever before. 

Page 37 — Locke Amsden, — This reference to the bed of death 
may possibly have been suggested by chapter v. in ' ' Locke 
Amsdem ", Judge Thomson's well-known story, where the hero 
stands by the bedside of Henry Marvin. That book appeared 

(4071 



408 THEOKY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

about the time this volume was written, and Mr. Page may have 
seen advance sheets. 

Page 37 — T?ie order of study is now fixed for most teachers by 
courses of study permanently adopted for a system of schools. 
In New York a large portion of even the district schools have by 
commissioner districts and under approval of the State Superin- 
tendent adopted a uniform course of study, which may be found 
in the 1893 edition of DeGraff's " School Room Guide ". 

Page 38 — Golburn's Arithmetic. — We can hardly realize at this 
day what a power Colburn's Mental Arithmetic was in education, 
fifty years ago. 

Warren Colhurn (1793-1833) manifested expertness in arithmcN 
tic at an early age, and after gradu- 
ation from Harvard in 1820 opened 
a select school in Boston. In 1821 
he published his "First Lessons ii; 
Intellectual Arithmetic ", based on 
the principles of Pestalozzi, which 
received higlier encomiums than 
any other text-book ever published 
"^^S^^^P^*^ in this country, and soon came into 

almost universal use, 50,000 copies being sold annually in Great 
Britain, and twice as many in America. In 1823 he withdrew 
from school to become superintendent of a manufacturing busi- 
ness, but lectured on scientific subjects, and published a "Sequel " 
to his "First Lessons ", and an " Algebra ". But his fame rests 
on the " First Lessons ". Thomas Sherwin said : " I regard Mr. 
Colburn as the greatest benefactor of his age, with respect to tlie 
proper development of mathematical power." See Mr. Page's 
judgment expressed on page 76. 
Page 4:^— Writing toith the x>&n. — It must be remembered that 




KOTES 409 

in Mr. Page's time writing with a pen was done with quills, 
every one of which the master had to sharpen or "mend" with 
his pen-knife (see page 276). The steel pen and stationary ink- 
stands have wrought a revolution in this matter, and in the best 
schools the pen is used from the first. Slates might well be pro- 
hibited altogether, as the use of slate pencils interferes with the 
proper grasp of the pen ; and even the lead pencil is used at great 
disadvantage as compared with the pen. 

Page AQ— Francis Waylnnd (1796-1865) was graduated from 
Union College, and began practice 
as a physician. Becoming con- 
verted he entered the ministry, but 
after five years' service in Boston 
became professor of mathematics 
at Union, where he had previously 
served four years as tutor. Almost 
immediately he was elected presi- 
dent of Brown University, where 
he remained from Febrnary, 1827, till his resignation in 1855. He 
proved to be one of the lialf-dozen great college presidents of his 
generation, establishing firm discipline, and proving himself an 
instructor of remarkable power. A justice of the Massachusetts 
Supreme Court, himself a Brown graduate, said of a witness in a 
certain trial : " If I had not known such to be the fact, I should 
have suspected that the man was one of Dr. Wayland's students 
from the way in which he discriminated between things which 
are often confounded." His best known books are "Elements of 
Moral Science", 1835 ; " Elements of Political Economy ", 1837 ; 
and ' ' Elements of Intellectual Philosophy ", 1854. A memoir by 
his son was published in 1869, 




410 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Page 59 — Uiiconscious tuition. — In this connection, every teacher 
should read Bishop Huntington's " Unconscious Tuition" — a 
book that has done more to inspire the true teaclier with a realiza- 
tion of his responsibility than any treatise of its size ever published. 

Page 60 — The Tnorning bath. — Comparatively few teachers have 
morning access to a bath-tub, but by means of a large, soft 
sponge a bath may be taken in three minutes that will invigorate 
the body for the whole day. See page 308. A small rubber mat 
with raised edge will be found convenient to stand on, to keep 
the water from the floor. The teacher with a good sponge and 
such a mat need never miss his morning bath. 

Page 61 — Care of tlie teeth. — It takes more than a brush to save 
most sets of teeth in these days, and the young teacher cannot be 
too earnestly urged to put himself as early as possible under care 
of a skillful dentist. A dentist's is one of the few bills one is 
justified in incurring even if he has to borrow the money to pay 
it. A stitch in time saves more than nine — it saves everything. 

Page 63 — Beprecisehut not pedantic. — ]Many a teacher has failed 
of desired promotion because of his unfortunate use of inaccurate 
language. There is little other study so immediately profitable 
to him as that of the dictionary and of reputable handbooks upon 
the use of language. (See page 140). One caution, however, 
should be thrown out in this connection, especially to young 
teachers. While the teacher should be scrupulously accurate in 
his own use of language, and quick to correct false expressions 
in school, let him beware of criticising tlie language of those out- 
side the school. A pedant is insufferable. Some teachers have 
the habit, whenever a word is given a pronunciation different 
from that they are accustomed to, of repeating the w^ord in their 
own pronunciation, even when it has been spoken by one older 
and wiser than themselves. Such teachers display at once their 



NOTES 



411 




supposed knowledge and their unquestioned ill-manners. See 
what Mr. Page says on page 78 of conceit in one's small acquire- 
ments in grammar. 

Page Ql— Habits of study.— This subject is treated at greater 
length later. See page 323. 
Page 11— Horace Mann (1796-1859) was the most emment and 
successful promoter of popular 
education of his time. As lawyer, 
statesman, and philanthropist he 
had achieved considerable reputa- 
tion, when in 1837 he became sec- 
retary of the newly-established 
Board of Education of Massa- 
chusetts. He held this position 
for 12 years, working 16 hours a 
day. He made use mainly of three agencies : (1) a series of 
teachers' institutes ; (2) a monthly Common ScJiool Journal ; and 
(3) a wide circulation of his Annual School Reports to the Board 
of Education (1838-1849), w^hich still rank among the best of 
educational literature. In 1843, he visited Europe, and his com- 
parisons in his 7th Report led to a heated controversy with the 
masters of the Boston schools. In 1848 he resigned to become 
United States senator, and in 1854 he became president of Antioch 
College, where he remained till his death. 

The statistics referred to are probably those for 1841, for in his 
5th report (page 24) Mr. Mann says: "The average salaries of 
male teachers for the same period [1837-1841] have advanced 33 
per cent.; those of females a little more than 12i per cent." In 
the statistics on which this estimate is based, we find (page 305) 
that the average wages after the increase of 33 and 12^ per cent, 
are as follows : 



412 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Average wages paid per montli including board {to Fenfales "^281 

Average value of board per montli |g][ Females' "^ 5 85 

Average wages per month, exclusive of board |qj Feimales ^^96 

It is interesting to compare these statistics with those of the 
55th Massachusetts report, for 1890-91, just half a century later. 
We find (page Ixxv) that the average wages of men teachers are 
now $118.07 a month, an increase of 250 per cent.; and those of 
women teachers $48.17 a month, an increase of 284 per cent. 
Meanwhile the average number of months of school has increased 
from four to ten, so that the increase in yearly salaries is 775 per 
cent, for men, and 860 per cent, for women. That this increase is 
not confined to Massachusetts is shown by the following table of 
monthly salaries in addition to board, taken from Mr. Mann's 11th 
report, for 1847 (page 97): 





Men. 


Women. 




Men. 


Women. 


Maine . . 


$15.40 

13.50 


$ 4.80 
5.65 


Pa 


$17.02 


$10.09 


N. H 


Ohio 


15.42 


8.73 


Vt 


12.00 


4.75 


Ind 


12.00 


6.00 


Conn 


16.00 


6.50 


Mich.... 


... . 12.71 


5.86 


N.y 


14.96 


6.69 


Mass.... 


24.51 


8.07 



The comparison of wages given by Mr. Page on pages 389, 
390, no longer holds good. 

Page 14:— Beading. —HovdiCQ Mann's 2d Report is almost entirely 
(pp. 37-76) devoted to the subject of reading. The quotation 
here is from pages 56, 57. 

Page 75 — Study of the classics — Mr. Page exemplified this pre- 
cept as to Latin and Greek in his own experience. See page 12. 

Page 79 — Geometry is placed by Thomas Hill before arithmetic 
in his "True Order of Studies", which should be read by teach- 
ers, to show how strongly this view may be presented. It may be 



f'oimd in Barnard's Journal of Education, vi. 180, 449 ; vii. 273, 
491. It is also published in book form. 

Page 81 — Physiology.— T\\Q quotation is from Horace Mann's 
6tli Report, which is devoted almost entirely (pages 56-160) to 
the teaching of physiology in school. 

Page ^'i—Book keeping.— ^j the report for 1891 of the Regents' 
of the University of the State of New York, it appears that for 
the year ending Sept. 1, 1891, 2,827 papers in book-keeping were 
offered. The numbers in some other studies were as follows • 
geography, 29,887 ; spellmg, 28,220 ; arithmetic, 26,027 ; U. S. 
history, 13,930 ; philosophy, 12,546 ; Latin, 9,370 ; civics, 5,967 ; 
plane geometry, 4,573. But much of book-keeping forms is now 
taught in connection with arithmetic and penmanship. 

Page 84 — Civil government. — Inmost States an examination in 
civics is now required of candidates who wish to be teachers. 
Indeed the subject is taught in a large proportion of even the 
country schools, as may be judged from the preceding Note. 

Page 85 — Vocal music. — See further remarks on this subject, 
page 202. Considerable space (pages 117-132) is given in Horace 
Mann's 8th Report to the subject of vocal music in tlie public 
schools. The general advance has perhaps been slower along 
this line during the past fifty years, than along any of the others 
advocated by these two writers. New York is we believe the 
first State specifically to authorize by law the teaching of this 
branch in the public schools. 

Page 87 — Scientific knoicledge. — Mr. Page's reference here to 
astronomy and geology, as well as what he said on pages 79, 80 
of physics and chemistry, show what an advance has been made 
in the teaching of science since tliis book was written. Most 
teachers have had considerable instruction in all these studies 
before they enter upon their work, and in the better high and 



414 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHINO" 

normal scliools both physics and chemistry are taug-ht experi- 
mentally. Botany and zoology Mr. Page does not even mention. 
Page 89— TAe artist's ideal.— The author exaggerates some- 
what the perfection of the artist's original ideal. He has a gen- 
eral conception of what he wishes to produce, but the gradual 
dewlopment of his ideal, during the process of realizing it, is the 
artist's greatest joy. This is perhaps more manifest in the true 
teacher than in any other artist. 
Page Q'2— George B. Emerson (1797-1881), one of the most influ- 
ential teachers of Massachusetts, 
began in a district school when 17 
years old, and withdrew in 1855, 
after having been for 25 years 
principal of a private school for 
girls in Boston. He served on the 
State Board of Education, was 
among the founders of the Amer- 
ican Institute of Instruction, and 
aided Warren Colburn in bringing out his " Intellectual Arith- 
metic". He wrote in 1843 the second part of " The School and 
the Schoolmaster", hereafter referred to (see page 422). This 
quotation is from pages 273, 274 of that work. Mr. Emerson's 
main effort at reform in education were toward the abolishment 
of corporal punishment, and the extension of the education of 
women. Some of his experiences were gathered by him into a 
volume called "Reminiscences of an Old Teacher " (1878). In 
his later years he did much botanical investigation. 

Page %2— Professional iweparation. — This statement of Mr. 
Emerson's is no longer true. Legal requirements already compel 
a certain amount of professional preparation, and every year the 
standard is rising. See Note to page 27, 




KOTES 415 

Page 101 — 8elf -activity . — The teacher should keep in mind 
Hamilton's well known definitions, that education is the direction 
of the mind to self -activity ; and that pleasure is the reflex of the 
spontaneous and unimpeded exertion of a power of whose energj- 
we are conscious. See page 111. 

Page 102— Methods of penmansJiip. — It is a curious comment- 
ary upon the note at the foot of this page, that series of ' ' tracing- 
books" are now made which teach penmanship by precisely 
this method. But they are based upon a false principle — the 
imitation of form instead of drill in movement. 

Page \0%— Leading questions. — " President Porter of Yale Uni- 
versity was an easy man to recite to. I recollect once he was 
hearing a class in Mark Hopkins's 'Law of Love,' and he had 
Blagden upon the floor. ' Blagden,' he said, ' is it right to pay 
very much attention to dress ? ' Blagden, who seldom looked at 
his lessons in this subject, preferring to trust to the inspiration of 
the moment, looked down at a well-fitting pair of trousers, and 
replied, ' Why, yes, sir ; I should think so.' Professor Porter, 
as he was then, smiled benevolently. ' Our author would hardly 
agree with you on general principles,' he said ; 'but suppose one 
dresses with care, not to gratify his vanity but in accordance 
with the demands of his station or the expectations of the friends 
he associates with '? ' — ' O, of course it would be wrong in that 
case,' Blagden replied quickly. And tradition has it that he got 
a very good mark in that recitation." 

Page \1%— Awakening curiosity. — The reader can appreciate 
the curiosity of the children from the fact that he is by this time 
himself anxious that Mr. Page shall tell the use he has in mind. 
Compare page 179. But teachers who thus rouse the curiosity 
of children should be careful to satisfy it legitimately. A teacher 
once promised his scholars that if they would not play or whisper 



416 THEORY' AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

all tlie afternoon lie would show them v>'liat no person had ever 
seen before and no person would ever see again. The room was 
so quiet one could have heard a pin drop. At the close of the 
session the teacher took from his pocket a peanut and broke the 
shell. "There," he said, holding up one of the kernels, "there 
is something no person ever saw before, and," swallowing it, 
"that no person will ever see again." But the story does not 
tell how he kept the room quiet the next afternoon. 

Page 131 — Object-lessons. — It will have occurred to the reader 
that this process of " waking up mind " is closely akin to what is 
now commonly known as "object-lessons", a term hardly known 
in this country till Dr. Sheldon introduced this method of teach- 
ing at Oswego, fifteen years after this book w^as written. There 
has been a great deal of discussion over the usefulness of object- 
lessons, which would have been avoided if Mr. Page's hints had 
always been followed. Not a few teachers have attempted to in- 
troduce printed reports of object-lessons bodily into their classes, 
expecting their pupils to give the same replies that another set 
of pupils had haiDpened to give, thus wholly mistaking the pur- 
pose of the lesson. 

The object-lesson is a failure if it does not serve the first pur- 
pose Mr. Page names, to put the minds of the children into a 
state of vigorous activity. You may "pour in" a printed object- 
lesson as easily as any other kind of ready-made and ill-fitting in- 
formation. See Note to page 357. For the possibilities of 
rational instruction of this kind, the teacher will do well to study 
the lesson on the duck in Rooper's " Object Lessons", one of the 
latest and best books on the subject. 

Page 135 — Manner of present Ing a subject. — Beyond the general 
question as to the natural order of presenting a given subject, 
the teacher will learn to study how the subject may be effect- 



KOTES 41 r 

ually presented to individual members of his class. See article 
on " The Professional Test ", in the School Bulletin for Feb., 1886, 
(xii.70). 

Page 136 — Text-hooks in recitation.— During his tour abroad, 
Horace Mann was impressed by the fact that the Prussian teachers 
never employed a text-book during recitation. On pages 122, 
123 of his 7th Report, he shows what power it gives the teacher 
to be free from the book 

Page 138 — The common-place hook.— It should be remarked that 
many of the best text-books in use have growm up from ' ' com- 
mon-place books " like that described. This very book bears 
evidence on every page of having accumulated from notes 
gathered from every source, and promptly put on paper, that 
they might not be lost. See page 329. 

Page 140 — Scotch animation. — This description of Horace 
Mann's is in his 7th Report, pages 60-67, and is well worth 
reading. 

Page \4^Z— Samuel Read Hall (1795-18—) received a scanty 
education, but began teaching in 1815, and from the start becanit; 
remarkable for unusual success in government and the introduc- 
tion of new methods. In 1823 he opened at Concord, N. H., a 
school for the training of teachers, the first normal school in this 
country. This was so successful that in 1830 he was made prin- 
cipal of the teachers' seminary at Andover, Mass., where he 
remained till 1840. He then removed to Craftsbury, Yt., where 
he continued in charge of a teachers' class till 1846. He then 
resigned to devote himself wholly to preaching, in which he had 
all his life been partially engaged. In 1829 he published his 
"Lectures to Schoolmasters on Teaching ", of which 10,000 were 
purchased in 1833 by the legislature of New York for distribution 
among the schools of the State, a distribution which led to the 




41$ THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

subsequent establishment of the District Library system. (See 
Barnard's " American Journal of Education ", v. 401.) The quo- 
tation here made is from chapter ix, page 82, of the 4th edition 
(1833). In 1832, he published "Lectures to Female Teachers on 
School-Keeping ". 

Page 14:1— Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838), son of a Chelsea 
^(""'Z^^^jm^ry^'^ pensioner, began at nineteen to 

^^*^ ^\ gather the children of the neighbor- 
ing poor for gratuitous instruction, 
at first in his father's home, and 
I then in rented rooms. He soon had 
■ a thousand children assembled at 
Borough Road, London. Through 
the Duke of Bedford and others a 
building was provided, the King 
became interested, and Lancaster travelled over England giving 
lectures and establishing schools. But his projects exceeded his 
resources, and in 1807 he was arrested for debt. William Carston 
and Joseph Fox, believing in his work, formed themselves into 
The British and Foreign School Society, and assumed his debt, 
still leaving him in charge. By 1813 his debts amounted again to 
some $40,000, and he was declared bankrupt. He dropped out of 
sight for a time, but in 1818 sailed to Philadelphia, and wandered 
over North and South America, lecturing and teaching, finally 
settling down in New York city, the corporation of which made 
him a grant of $500. Here on Oct. 23, 1838, he was run over in 
the street by a carriage and killed. In 1833 he published an 
autobiography, and in 1840 a brief biography by William Carston 
appeared. 

The peculiarity of his method was the employment of pupils as 
teachers, and the almost imivcrsal concert method in recitation. 



JrOTES 



419 



When so acting ptipils were called "monitors ", whence the term 
" monitorial system ", the invention of which was claimed both hy 
r>r. Andrew Bell and by Mr. Lancaster. The latter confesses to 
having received hints from Dr. Bell's book, published in 1797 ; but 
developed the system from necessity, since in his original school 
he had no money with which to employ teachers. For a time his 
system bcame a craze, and " Lancasterian " schools were founded 
everywhere, not a few of them in America. The most extrava- 
gant claims were made, and just before his death Mr. Lancaster 
planned to return to England and teach ten thousand children to 
read fluently in from three weeks, to three months. But, as Mr. 
J. G. Fitch says in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (xiv. 258). ' ' We 
have since come to believe that intelligent teaching requires skill 
and previous training, and that even the humblest rudiments are 
not to be well taught by those who have only just acquired them 
themselves, or to be attained by mere mechanical drill." Horace 
Mann speaks with his usuul emphasis in his 7th Report (page 60): 
"One must see the difference between the hampering, blinding, 
misleading instruction given by an inexperienced child, and the 
developing, transforming, and almost creative power of an 
accomplished teacher ;— one must rise to some comprehension of 
the vast import and significance of the phrase ' to educate ',— 
before he can regard with sufiiciently energetic contempt that 
boast of Dr. Bell, ' Give me twenty-four pupils to day, and I 
will give you back twenty -four teachers to-morrow.' " 

Page 151 — Experimenting on c/i^7f?re;i. —Dio Lewis's well-known 
illustration is always apt. An oculist, complimented upon his 
deft skill in an operation, replied : "Yes, but in learning to do 
this I have spoiled a hat-full of eyes ! " 

Page 168— " GrwZrewar^Zs."— It should be borne in mind that 
God's rewards are not always material. It is far from true that 



420 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACftlK'CT' 

the deserving either in purpose or in accomplishment always get 
in this life such rewards as correspond with the prizes in schools. 
Honesty is the best policy, but not because it always makes a 
man rich ; it often makes him poor. But it is its own reward, 
in the consciousness of right-doing. See page 174. 

Page llQ—TJie pleasure of acquisition.— The saying of the phi 
losopher is w^ell worth pondering : "If I had all knowledge in 
my grasp, I would let it go for the pleasure of once more acquir- 
ing it." See page 178. Robert Browning's philosophy of life is 
based on the joyful fact that we can never become perfect, but 
that as w^e strive for perfection our ideal rises. 

Page 177 — The acquisition of the child. — This has become a 
study of great importance. Such books as Perez's " First Three 
Years of Childhood ", and Tiedemann's " Record of Infant Life " 
are recognized as among the first to be read by teachers, espec- 
ially those of primary grades. 

Fage 182— The passion of anger. — There is a popular impres- 
sion, upon which many anecdotes are based, that profanity acts 
as a safety-valve to reduce the violence of anger. Nothing could 
be further from the truth. Through indulgence in oaths of ac 
cumulating violence a slight annoyance may be heated into n 
phrensy, until all self-control is lost. The teacher cannot be too 
earnestly warned to avoid, for his own sake as well as for exam- 
ple to his pupils, not only profane expressions, but the half-oaths, 
and even the ejaculations of annoyance. 

Page 18^— Frivolity . — Even more dangerous in the teacher is 
sentimentality. The sentimental schoolmaster always has marked 
favorites, and does not always show judgment in exhibiting his 
partiality. If silly and sentimental herself, such a favorite may 
make both herself and the teacher ridiculous or worse. But if 
»he has the good taste and the good sense to reject such over- 



NOTES 421 

tures, her opinion of him and of men receives a shock from which 
it is slow to recover. "Mother," said one such girl, her eyes 
flashing through tears of indignation, ' ' he told me I was the 
dearest, sweetest girl in all the school ; what right had he to say 
such a thing to me ? " Her instinct had recognized the leer of 
sentimentality under the compliment ; she knew" it was not to 
make discriminations like these he was put in charge of his 
pupils, and she felt the personal effront that he should lift the 
schoolmaster's toga to reveal the mantle of a lover. 

Under such a teacher the neglected ones grow bitter. They 
observe, exaggerate, often misapprehend the attentions their 
teacher pays the more favored ones, and they are personally dis- 
couraged. They feel that their best work will never be fairly 
credited, that they do not get the personal assistance they are 
entitled to, and that under this teacher their work must neces- 
sarily be unprofitable. Jealousy and other evil feelings are 
aroused, and altogether a cloud falls over their school life that is 
not readily lifted. Compare page 188. 

Page 184:— Jacob Abbott (1803-1879) was graduated from Bow- 
doin College in 1820, and was tutor and professor of mathematics 
in Amherst College from 1824 to 1829, when he opened the Mount 
Vernon school for girls in Boston. In 1834 he became pastor of 
the Eliot church in Roxbury, resigning a year later to devote him- 
self to authorship. In 1843 he went to Europe, and on his return 
joined tw^o brothers in opening a young ladies' school in New 
York, afterwards known as the Spingler Institute, to which a 
boys' department was added in 1845. In 1851 he once more gave 
up teaching for authorship. He was the sole author of 180 
volumes, and joint-author of 31 more. 

"The Teacher, or Moral Influences emi)loyed in the Instruc- 
tion and Government of the Young " was published in 1833, and 
has still considerable sale, The quotation liere is froni chapter 



422 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



iv., pp. 119, 130 of the revised edition. The thought is further 
developed on pages 193, 194, of this vohime. 

Page 185 — Treatment of backward children. — Furtlier remarks 
on this subject will be found on pages 188, 343, 351. 

Page 186 — Confidence in govern tnent. — The inexperienced teacher 
should bear in mind the famous lines of Addison : 
' T Is not in mortals to command success, 
But we'll do more, Sempronius, we'll deserve it. 

This is the resolution that should underlie all he does. In his 
own preparation for daily worli, in his carefulness in recitation, 
in his readiness to do all he can for the school and the pupils in- 
dividually, he should do his duty so tlioroughly that no reproach 
can fall upon him. This is the basis on which all good govern- 
ment rests ; and on this basis he can be firm and even severe 
when firmness and severity are needed. 

Page 188 — Males and females. — Usage has changed for the bet- 
ter since Mr. Page's time. We no longer speak of males and 
females in scliool, but of boys and girls, or of young men and 
young women. 

Page 203— Bishoj) Alonzo Potter (1800-1865) wa^ graduated 





BISHOP POTTER. JAMES WADSWORTH. 

from Union College in 1818, and professor there most of the 
time till 1845, when he was made Bishop of the diocese of Penn- 



NOTES 423 

sylvanLa. While eminent in his college work, he was no less 
interested in the common schools. He was the advisor of James 
Wadsworth of Geneva in his gifts for education, and of the 
Department of Public Instruction in its official action. He was 
author of the first part of " The School and the Schoolmaster", 
prepared at the expense of Mr. Wadsworth, who distributed 
15,000 copies among the schools of the State, and leading educa- 
tional men elsewhere, xiltogether more than 60,000 copies were 
sold. 

Page 2^^— Registers of credits.— Thh suggestion of putting the 
emphasis on encouragement rather than on reproof is capable of 
wide extension. One of the first precepts given to teachers by 
Mrs. Louise Preece, whose system of physical culture is used in 
many large cities, is this : " Never call the attention of pupils to 
their personal defects ; it will only exaggerate the defects by mak- 
ing the pupils more conscious of them. Instead, give them exer- 
cises that will lessen the defects, and then praise the children for 
the improvement. If m.y child is round-shouldered, and I say, 
'Dear me, Mabel, how crooked you are,' it will only make her 
more round-shouldered ; but if I take a time when she happens 
to be sittmg more upright than usual, and say, ' Why, Mabel, 
how much straighter you are getting to be lately ; you have no 
idea how much it is improving your appearance,' she will think of 
it twenty times a day, and sit or stand straighter." 

Page 228 — Loss of privileges. — This is the fundamental principle 
of Herbert Spencer's idea of discipline. See his "Education", 
chapter iii. 

Page 2'^\— Janitor duties.— Kt the present time, wheii siidi 
tasks as are here named are usually the paid work of a janitor, it 
would be unwise to impose tlicm on pupils. Even in thj small 
districts where Guch work still falls on the teacher, pupilc should 



4:24: THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

not be compelled to take part in it, though often they may be 
permitted to in a friendly way to assist. 

Page 236 — Horace Mann's mews. — The quotation is from Mr. 
Mann's lecture on "School Punishments" (1840), pp. 336-339 of 
the edition of 1867. 

Page 2i3— Corporal punishment is now forbidden by statute 
in some States, like New Jersey : and by regulation in many 
cities, like Syracuse. 

'Pa.ge24:5—Theriff7itofex2mlsion. — The law may now be con- 
sidered established that the teacher has the right to suspend a 
pupil, and to refer the matter to the trustees ; and that the trus- 
tees have the right to expel. See Bardeen's "Common School 
Law ", pages 68-76. 

Page 255 — The French assembly. — This paragraph is one of the 
most strikingly oratorical passages in the book, showing, if we 
did not otherwise know it, that the chapters of were originally 
prepared and used as lectures. 

Page 2oS— School arrangements. — In modern nomenclature, the 
title of this chapter would be " School Management ", or " School 
Economy ". 

Page 260 — Preparation for the first day. — The untried teacher 
will find needed help in Buckham's "Handbook for Young 
Teachers ", which gives with rare sagacity the suggestions of an 
older friend. 

Page 261 — Disparaging former teachers. — This wise counsel of 
Mr. Page is repeated again and again, and cannot be too strongly 
impressed upon the young teacher. 

Page 264 — Jacob Abbot fs views. — This quotation is ooudensed 
from chapter ix., pages 326, 327, of the revised edition. 

Page 269 — Tlie daily programme here given has much historical 
interest, and may profitably be compared with tho?^ of the 



NOTES 425 

present day. Ft)!' two programmes carefully constructed accord- 
ing to present ideas, see DeGraflf's " School Room Guide ". 

Page 270 — Drawing. — That Mr. Page recognized drawing as 
an important element in education illustrates how comprehensive 
were his views ; but he looked upon it, as others did at that time, 
us merely the copying of pictures or the representation of objects. 
How the idea of teaching drawing has developed may be judged 
from the present title under which it is taught, — " Form- Study 
and Drawing," to which "Color" is already beginning to be 
added. 

Page 279 — Lancasterian schools, — See Note on Joseph Lancas- 
ter, page 418. 

Page 280— Recesses.— In the decade from 1880 to 1890, there 
was much argument at teachers' associations against school 
recesses. Albany, Rochester, and some other cities did away 
with them, having but one session a day, with intervals for calis- 
thenics. A discussion of the subject may be found in the report 
of the Commissioner of Education for 1884-85, pp. xxiv-xxvi, and 
in the proceedings of the Department of Superintendence of the 
National Educational Association for 1884, pages 59-75. Dr. 
Wm. T. Harris's paper, advocating recesses, was published in 
the School Bulletin, xi. 2. 

Page 281 — Se'parate accommodations for loth sexes. — Some States, 
like New York, have made positive enactment that the play- 
grounds and out-buildings shall be wholly distinct, and separated 
by Cj high fence. 

Page 282— Leam to retire from the room. — Mr. Page's advice 
that as a general rule children should be permitted to retire from 
the school-room only at the regular recesses should be followed 
with caution and circumspection, especially in case of young 
pupils. Much suffering and irreparable harm often result from 



436 l^EORX Ai^D PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

the indifference of the teacher to the needs of nature in little 
children. 

Page 284 — ''Not hoio much hut how iccll." — This is a good 
motto for the wise teacher, but a dangerous one for the shallow 
teacher, for it may easily lead to abuse. There is much worth 
considering in an editorial in the Ainerican Educational Monthly, 
V. 445-447. 

Page 288 — Public examinations. — These are almost unknown at 
the present day, the substitute being usually an exhibition, where 
declamations, recitations and composition are employed to impress 
upon parents what progress their children have made. But that 
in Mr. Page's time these public examinations were universal and 
harmful is illustrated in Horace Mann's 4th Report (pages 76-79), 
where the abuse is deplored in language even stronger than that 
here found. 

Page 292 — Examinations for iwomotion seem to have been prac- 
tically unused in Mr. Page's time, as those spoken of are only for 
exhibition purposes. The teacher's attention should, however, 
be called to the present discussion of this subject, and to the fact 
that some cities, like Buffalo and Cleveland, have practically dis- 
carded them, relying mainly upon the teacher's judgment as to 
when a child should pass to a higher grade. 

Page 300—" Ever endeaDor."— The preparation of this book in 
the form of lectures led Mr. Page to the employment of some 
phrases at that time supposed to be particularly fitted to the plat- 
form ; as for instance, the use of " ever " in place of "always ". 
In this place the substitution is pai ticularly unfortunate. 

Page 301 — " Out-door work." — A caution should be thrown out 
here. The teacher should not make himself so prominent in the 
outside matters of the village as to neglect his school-work. If 
he becomes superintendent of the Sunday-school, supplies the 



NOTES 437 

vacant pulpit, arranges the lecture course, engineers the picnics, 
conducts the political caucuses, and shows a general disposition 
to put himself at the head in everything that comes up, he not 
only arouses unnecessary antagonisms, but he dissipates upon 
these various activities the energy that properly belongs to his 
school. While the teacher should be an all-around man and a 
good citizen, he should be reluctant to take upon his shoulders 
any serious responsibilities outside the school. 

Page 303 — " The School and the Schoolmaster. '^ — The history of 
this book has already been given under the names of its two 
authors (pages 414, 423). The quotation here given is condensed 
from chapter ii, pages 288-299. 

Page 305 — Ricling on horseback. — If he were living to-day, Mr, 
Emerson would doubtless recommend the bicycle, which is ridden 
by thousands of teachers, from President Low of Columbia College, 
and Superintendent Maxwell of Brooklyn, down to the young 
woman just beginning her work in a district school. It puts 
healthful and inspiring exercise within the reach of all. 

Page 311 — Quantity of food. — Mr. Emerson's opinion that one- 
half the food a farmer needs will be sufficient for the teacher 
would not pass current at the present day. Brain labor is not only 
quite as fatiguing as any other, but it requires quite as much and 
as hearty nourishment. 

Page 312 — Drink at meals. — Modern hygiene objects to drink 
at meals ; especially to cold water. It is better to drink a glass 
of water an hour before a meal. 

The last rule should be followed by another quite as important 
as any that have been given, which is. Do not hurry at meals. 
Probably the hasty, half-swallowing of the breakfast, and gulp- 
ing down of the dinner have done more to produce dyspepsia in 
the teacher and disorder in the school-room than either the nature 



428 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

or the quality of the food. " If Byron had respected his dinner/' 
wrote Thackeray, "he would never haA^e written Don Juan." 
The teacher should respect his dinner, allow plenty oi time for it, 
and permit no pressure of work to produce a habit of hurry. 

Page 318 — Salaries of teachers, — The advance in average salaries 
since Mr. Page's time, already spoken of (page 412) is still less 
remarkable than the advance in salaries for higher positions. 
Several college presidents now command $10,000 a year ; the 
regular salary of a i3rofessor in Columbia College is $7,500 ; and 
the salaries of superintendents in the larger cities range mostly 
from $4,000 to $7,500. The tendency is still to require more 
exceptional qualification and to pay higher salaries in all respon- 
sible positions. It may be doubted whether the average salary 
in either law or medicine or theology is to-day larger than that of 
men teachers professionally trained. 

Page 321 — Discrimination in emjyloi/ment, — Mr. Page's usual 
keen discernment seems to have failed him here. He presents the 
facts, but he fails to draw the right induction. The moment 
incompetent teachers are shut out from teaching, the number 
of available teachers becomes smaller and salaries rise. All that 
good teachers need ask is that no poor teachers shall be granted 
certificates ; the salary question will take care of itself. 

Page 327 — Books recommended. — It would be a pity to omit 
this list of the teachers' library of 1846, as some later editions 
have done. Of the 15 books specified by title, the " School and 
the Schoolmaster " has been spoken of on pages 414, 423 ; the 
"Teacher" on page 421; "Lectures on School Keeping" on 
page 417; and the " Secretary's Reports " of Horace Mann on 
page 411. 

The "Teachers' Manual", by Thomas II. Palmer, won the 
prize of $500 offered in 1838 l\y the American Institute of Instruc- 



KOTES 429 

tion iiJY " tlie best Kssay on a system of Education best adapted 
to the Common Schools of our country, to embrace the formation 
of School Districts, the construction of Schoolhouses, and the 
entire course of School Education, from the most elementary 
department to the highest embraced in our public schools." It 
was published in 1840 under the direction of Horace Mann, and 
made a 12mo book of 260 pages. 

" The Teacher Taught," by Emerson Davis, a little book of 76 
pages ; and " The Schoolmaster's Friend", by Theodore Dwight, 
jr., a book of 360 pages, are now very rare. 

Mr. Taylor wrote "The District School " in competition for a 
prize offered by Mr. Wadsworth, and received $1,000 for it, 
although the committee thought it hardly up to the standard 
required. A preface to the 3d edition (1885), which was entirely 
re- written, with chapters vii. and xix. added, states that 8,000 
copies were sold within four months of the first appearance of 
the book. The Regents recommended it as a reading-book for 
teachers' seminaries. For Mr. Taylor's other writings and sub- 
sequent career, see Bardeen's " History of Educational Journalism 
in the Empire State ", pages 5-10, 

The other books whose titles are given were periodicals of the 
time, the issue of which was long ago suspended, except the 
"Lectures of the American Institute of Instruction ", wiiich are 
still annually published, and are still, as they have always been, 
highly valued. 

The other books referred to are the essays of Thomas Wyse, 
president of the Central Society of Education, London, published 
in the "First", "Second", and "Third" "Publications" of 
that society, three volumes of essays (1837-1889) ; a prize essay 
on " The Expediency and Means of Elevating the Profession of 
the Educator in Society ", by John Lalor, published by the same 



430 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

Society, and republished in Barnard's Journal of Education, v. 33 ; 
Victor Cousin's "Report on the State of Public Instruction in 
Prussia" (his "Report on Education in Holland, as regards 
Schools for the Working Classes and for the Poor ", was com- 
paratively little known), translated by Sarah Austin, and published 
in London in 1884, and in New York in 1835,— still a standard 
authority, and at that time a power in the advancement of educa- 
tional interests; and "Lord Brougham on Education" (1839), 
edited by J. Orville Taylor, made up of extracts from his writ- 
ings and speeches, with notes by the editor. 

This " somewhat extended list of books " was a large teachers' 
library in 1846. Horace Mann recommends in his 5th Report 
(page 59) "The Teacher", "The Teacher's Manual", "The 
Teacher Taught", from the above list, but adds Edgeworth's 
"Practical Education", and Mme. Neckar de Saussure's "Pro- 
gressive Education ", both still standard works. He also mentions 
the works of Pestalozzi, Simpson, Wilderspin, and Stow. 

Page 338 — The Essex County Association. — In reply to nn 
inquiry whether this association is still alive. Superintendent W. 
A. Mowry of Salem writes on Nov. 19, 1893 : "It still main- 
tains a vigorous existence. * * * This fall all the schools of 
the county were closed, by vote of the school-boards. High 
school teachers came as well as others, and the attendance was 
fully 1,500. It was a capital meeting." 

Page 343 — Poorly -dressed children. — Mr. Page's frequent refer- 
ences to the injustice with which the poor and the unattractive 
are frequently treated in school is based upon his own sad experi- 
ence. See quotation from Horace Mann, pages 10, 11. 

Page 345 — Control of Studies. — The courts have usually given 
to the trustees the right to prescribe a course of study, and to 
insist that every child shall take all tlie studies required in his 



NOTES 



431 



grade. Thus it has been held that composition may be required 
of all pupils, and that a girl may be expelled for refusing to 
declaim, even if her father has conscientious scruples against 
women's speaking in public. The present tendency, especially 
at the west, is to limit this power. See pages 57-67 of Bardeen's 
" Common School Law ". 

Page 348 — Extraneous business. — The teacher shoald l)e espe- 
cially warned against commercial transactions with his pupils, 
such as furnishing text-books, paper, writing-pads, pens, pencils, 
etc. If he makes money out of this peddling he will inspire con- 
tempt, and he will l)e accused of making money even Avhen he 
sells at cost or less. It is much better, where it is thought wise 
to buy school supplies in quantity and furnish them to the pupils, 
that the entire matter should be entrusted to a committee of the 
pupils. It will be practical business education for them, and 
relieve the teacher from the suspicion of pocketing perquisites at 
the expense of his pupils. 

Page Z^'^— Insulting visits of 2)a)'e7its.-^The pnrent is sometimes 
so unreasonable that courteous conduct is powerless, and the 
work of the school is seriously interrupted. In such cases the 
teacher should remember that he has the power to compel the 
withdrawal of the parent, or other intruder. In Nev,- York a 
message should be sent to the nearest justice of the peace, who is 
compelled l)y law to arrest the offender and to fine him. The 
schoolhouse is the teacher's castle. See Bardeen's " Common 
School Law ", pages 77, 78. 

Page 357 — Oral instruction. — To understand just what Mr. - 
Page is here condemning so violently, it is necessary to consult the 
educational literature of 1829 to 1881. The spirit of the time is 
fortunately preserved to us in William Russell's Journal of Edu^ 
cation (1826-1830), and the Annals of Education that succeeded it. 



43^ THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

We find that in what was then known as " infant education " there 
had been introduced a combination of what were supposed to be 
Pestalozzi's principles witli Lancaster's methods— in other words, 
object-lessons committed to memory by the oldest boy in the 
school, and taught by him parrot-like to the rest. 

Thus in a quotation from Goyder it is stated {Journal, ii. 25): 
' ' The system of instruction pursued at the Bristol Infant School is 
said to consist of one continued round of varied amusements, 
not that play is the principal characteristic, but because the 
instruction is so blended with amusement tliat it ought to be 
termed nothing else. * » * What is repetition of arithmetic 
tables ? Instruction : but it is conveyed in so pleasing a manner 
that it is also an amusement. And what is reading, spelling, 
writing, arithmetic, singing, marching, etc., etc.? All instruc- 
tion ; granted — but it is amusement to me to convey such 
instructions, and I know it is amusement for children to receive 
them." 

Specimens of Goyder 's lessons are given on pages 129-132 of 
this same volume. Some of the best books illustrating this 
method of instruction are S. Wilderspin's " Infant Education " 
(1823), and "Early Disciplme Illustrated" (1832) ; William Wil- 
son's "The System of Infants' Schools " (3d edition, 1826) ; and 
John Wood's "Account of the Edinburgh Sessional School" 
(1828). This combination of monitorial and supposedly inductive 
instruction should not be confounded with real Pestalozzian 
methods, which can hardly be said to have been systematically 
introduced until Dr. Sheldon brought Miss Jones from England, 
in 1861. See Note to page 131. 

Page 362 — Limits of the icachefs autliority. — The teacher's 
authority over the pupil is absolute in tho school-room and on 
the school-grounds, in or out of school hours. On the pupil's 



KOTES 433 

way to and from school it is usually held that the authority of 
the teacher is concurrent with that of the parent.* "So far as 
offences arc concerned for which pupils committing them would 
be answerable to the laws, such as larceny, trespass, etc. ^ * * * 
it is the wisest course generally for the teacher (whatever be his 
legal power) to let the offender pass into tiie hands of judicial or 
parental authority, and thus avoid being involved in controversies 
with parents and others, and exposing himself to the liberty of 
being harassed by prosecution at law. 

" But as to any misdemeanors of which the pupils are guilty 
in pas:ing from the school-house to their homes which directly 
and injuriously affect the good order and government of the 
school, such as truancy, wilful tardiness, quarrelling with other 
children, the use of indecent and profane language, etc., there 
can be no doubt that these matters come within the jurisdiction 
of the teacher, and are properly matters for discipline in the 
school." See Bardeen's "Common School Law ", pages 78-83. 

Page ^Q^— United States currency only.— In the number of the 
District School Journal that reviews the first edition of this book 
(vii. 318, Feb., 1847) we find that though shillings are not men- 
tioned the price of nearly every book advertised is an even num- 
ber of shillings, showing that the shilling is the usual basis of 
sale. Thus Thomson's "Mental Arithmetic " is 12^ cents, and 
his "Intellectual Algebra" 37^ cents. Curiously enough, how- 
ever, Thomson's ' ' Practical Arithmetic " is 37 cents, the only 
exception among the prices given. " The " Yankee shilling" of 
New England is still a sixth of a dollar, while the " York shilling " 
of the middle and western States is an eighth of a dollar. 

* In New York, however, the Superinteudents have uniformally ruled 
that the teacher canuot punish for disorder committed outside the school- 
grounds. 



434 THEORY AKD PRACTICE OF TEACHIISTG 

Page 866 — The teacher's blunders.— The wisest teacher may 
sometimes be asked a legitimate question he cannot answer, or 
may have his answer justly challenged. But he will look the 
matter up before the next recitation, and be prepared to speak 
with authority. The habit in school of looking up in the diction- 
ary and at the time any word of w^hich the spelling or the pro- 
nunciation or the meaning is doubtful, is in itself no small element 
of an education. 

Page ^m—Bcnison Olmsted (1791-18—) was graduated from 
Yale College in 1813, and after 
teaching in a select school, and in 
the University of North Carolina, 
became in 1825 professor of mathe- 
matics and physics at Yale, where 
he remained till death. But he 
was always greatly interested in 
common-school education. His 
oration in 1815 was on " The State 
of Education in Connecticut", in which he advocated "an 
Academy for Schoolmasters ". In 1840, while a member of the 
Connecticut board of education, he once more urged the starting 
of a normal school. Pie lectured before the American Institute 
of Instruction in 1838 on "The School System of Connecticut", 
and in 1845 upon "The Ideal of the Perfect Teacher". The 
quotation here given is from the latter address. 

Page SSd—Eeicardsof the teacher. —Another side of this question 
was presented at the National Educational Association, 1885, in a 
paper on ' ' Teaching as a Business for Men " (Proceedings, pages 
138-150). Conditions have changed much for the better since 
then, however, and the author of that paper says in the School 
Bulletin for Oct., 1892 (xix. 15): "There is probably no other 




KOTES 



485 



profession to-day where there are proportionally to the number 
of real workers so many mcomes above $1,500 as in teaching. 
It docs not take a great man to secure one of these places. As 
we said last month, loyalty and steadfastness are the qualities 
that count, and when salaries rise above $2,000 the places have to 
hunt for the men, not the men for the places." 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, FOR REVIEWS 



PAGE 

Chapteu I. SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER - - 25 

I. Ills MOTIVES ------ 26 

ii. PREPAKATION IN OTHER PROFESSIONS - - 2G, 91 

A. None requikeu in teaching - - - - ~'<'i ^07 

Ul. TEACHING MADE A STEPPING-STONE - - 28 

Iv. IGNORANCE A SIN ; INDIFFERENCE A HOMICIDE - 29 

Chapter II RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER 30 

i. Ill THE NEGLECTED PEAR-TREE - - - 30 

A. The moral garden - - - - - 33 

1. Education necessary to development ■ - 35 

2. It should begin early - - - - - .35 

3. It should he a right education _ .. _ 35 

4. The educator should be safe and honest - - - 35 
ii. THE TEACHER IS RESPONSIBLE - - - :i6 

A. For the bodily health of the child - - - 36 

Ii. For his intellectual growth - _ - 37^ 407 

1. The order of study - . - - 37,408 
a. Reading - - - - - - 38, 72 

&. Spelling and dejiiiing - - - - 38, 72 

C. Mental ariUnneiic - - - - - .38, 408 

Recitation without books - - - - 38 

d. Geography - - - - - 39, 76 

e. Hiatonj - - - - - 39, 76 
/. Penmanship - - - - -39,76 
g. Written arithmetic _ _ _ _ 40,77,408 
h. Composition, ----- 40 
i. Grammar - - - - - 40, 77, 1.39 

2. The manner of study - - - - 41 
a. Not the words but the subject - - - - 42 

(436) 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, POR EEVIEAVS 437 

PAGE 

3. Collateral study . _ - - - 43 

C. For his moral training - - - - - 4 J 

1. Example before precept - - - - 45 

2. Cultivation of the conscleuce - - - 45, 174, 409 

3. The school no place for unprincipled teachers - - 47 

D. For his religious training - - - - 48 

1. No sectarian bias ----- 40 

2. Especially no example of skepticism - -^ - 50 
B. Who is sufficient for these things V - - - 51 

1. Recognition of responsibility _ _ - 51,92 

2. An honest mind, with the requisite Industry - - 52 
ill. III. THE AUBURN STATE PRISON - - - - 52 

A. Why were those men there ? - - - 53 

1. III. Wyatt, the murderer - - - - 53 

2. The Sunday service ----- 54 

3. Weakness of moral principle - - - - 56 
a. Res-ponsibiUty of the teacher - - - 56 

Chapter III. PERSONAL HABITS OF TEACHER 59, 410 

i. MAN A BUNDLE OF HABITS _ - - . 59 

A. Neatness and cleanliness - - - - 60 

1. The morning bath - - - - - 60, 410 

2. The teeth and the nails - - - - 61, 410 

3. Attire ------ ci 

4. Use of tobacco - - - - - - 62 

' B. Order and system ----- 62 

• C. Courtesy ----- 63, 368 

1. Pure thoughts ----- (53 

2. Accurate language - - - - 63, 139, 410 

3. True politeness - - - 64, 183, 185, 188, 194, 2^:4 
a. III. The two teachers - - - - - 65 
f). Manners taught botJi bi/ example and by precept 65, 141, 209 

D. Punctuality - - - - - - 66 

1. As marked in dismissing as in opening - - 66 

E. Habits OP study ----- 67,328,411 
ii. THE CHARACTER OF THE TEACHER - - - 68 

A. Let the motto be "• Excelsior " - - - -69 



438 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIN^G 



PAGE 



Chapteu IV. LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE 
TEACHER - - - . 

1. THE STANDARD OF PREPARATION ADVANCING 
.1. Advance in salaries of teacheks 
B Competent knowledge required of teachers - 

1. Ortliograpliy - - . _ _ 
a. Phonics - - 

2. Reading - _ . _ _ 
a. " Talcing the sense " of a iMvagraph 
1). Acqnaintance loilh Latin and Greeic desirable 

3. Penmansliip . - - _ 

4. Geography - - _ _ _ 

5. History _ . _ _ _ 

6. Mental arithmetic _ _ _ _ 
a. Mr. Page's exiierienre with Colbtirn's 
1). '■'' Semis'" in arithmetic - _ _ _ 

7. Written aritlimetic - - - - 

8. English grammar - - „ _ 
a. Warning against conceit 

9. Algebra ---„__ 

10. Geometry _ _ _ _ _ 

11. Plain trigonometry aucl surveying - - - 

12. Physics - - - _ . 

13. Chemistry - - - - - - 80 

14. Physiology ------ 80,413 

a. The laws of hiigiene - - ~ - •SO 

b. Best taught through, the teacher - ■* - 82 

15. Intellectual philosophy - - - - - 82 
IG. Moral philosophy ----- 82 

17. Rhetoric and logic - - - - -83 

18. Book-keeping ----- 83 
a. Neglected in the New Fork, scJiools of iskf> - 83, 413 

19. Civics ---„-- SI, 413 

20. Drawing - - - - - 85, 270 
2l! Vocal music - - - - - - 85, 413 

c. Importance of general knowledge - - 86, 328 



- 


70 




70 


71, 


,412 




72 


- 


72 




72 


72, 


,412 




73 


75, 


412 




76 


- 


76 




76 


- 


76 




76 


- 


139 




77 


77, 


,139 




78 


- 


78 


ro, 


412 


- 


79 




79 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, FOR REVIEWS 430 

PAGE 

1. Temptation to neglect - - - 87, 129, 413 

D. Select a subject to read ok write upon - - 87, 330, 334 

Chapter V. RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION - 89 

1. THE ARTIST MFST HAVE AN IDEAL - - - 89, 414 

A. The teacher the sculptor of the soul - - 90 

1. Necessity of preparation - - - - - ^l 

ii. THE TEACHER MUST HAVE JUST VIEWS OF EDUCATION 91, 414 

A. Knowledge alone not education - - - - 93 
1. No education without knowledge - ~ - 93 

B. Discipline of mind the great thing - - - 93 



C. Moral development 



96 



ilL " GOOD SCHOLARS " OFTEN MAKE WORTHLESS YiE^ 07, 162 

A. Dull scholars often come to the front 97, 185, 188, ;343, 351 

B. The active mind may be unduly stimulated - - 98 

C. In teaching, what is sown is reaped - - - 99 
Chapter VI. RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING - 100 

i. APTNESS TO TEACH _ - - - 100, 132 

A. An acquired power _ . - - lOO, 133 

iL DEGREE OF ASSISTANCE GIVEN TO PUPILS - 101, 415 

J.. The " pouring-in " process - - -103,356,415 

1. A " passive recipient " is a two-gall m jug - 103, 1'27 

J5. The "drawing-out"' process - - -105,146,415 

1. III. Lessons in aritlimetic and In history - - 105 

a. A niethoa of stupefying mind - - - - 109 

?). The pupil should do Oie talking - - - 109 



C. The more excellent way 



110 



1. The pupil taught self-reliance - - - 110 

2. Help the pupil to help himself - - - - m 
ill. WAKING UP MIND ----- 113, '202 

A. General exercises _ - - - - 113 

Ills. 1. " What is this ear of corn for ? " - - - 114, 415 

2. " Do other plants have seeds ? " - - i~i 

3. "Do all plants have seeds?" - - - 122 

4. "Do trees have seeds?" - - - 122 

5. "Does the elm have seeds?" - - - 123 

6. "How are seeds disseminated?" - - 125 



440 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

PAGE 

7. "Are plants propagated in any other way ?" - 125 

8. " Have any plants more ways than one ? " - 126 

B. Advantages of this method over lectures - - 126 

1. It arouses the minds of the pupils - - 127 
a. Thehahitof ooservation - - -^ - 127 

2. It arouses the minds of the parents - - 128 

3. It arouses the mind of the teacher - - - 129 

C. Oral instruction not to supplant text-books - 130, 357, 416 

Chapter VII. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS - 132 

i. APTNESS TO TEACH ----- 132 

.1. An acquired power ----- 133 

B. How IT MAY BE ATTAINED _ _ - _ 134 

C. Natural order of presenting a subject - - 135 

D. The teacher's needs in conducting recitations - 135 

1. Thorough knowledge of the subject - - 135, 366, 416 
a. Use of text-liooTc in class - - - 135, 417 
1). Asking the printed qnesUons - - - 136 

2. Preparation for each lesson _ _ _ 137 
a. The conn non-place book _ _ _ i38, 329, 417 

3. Correct and fluent language - _ _ 139 

4. Animation - - - - - -140,417 

a. The pupils catcli the teac7ier''s manner - - 141 

5. The flxed attention of the class - - - 141 

6. A variation In methods _ _ ^ 142, 202 

7. Clearness in explanation - - - - 143 
a. III. Carrying one for every ten - - - 143,417 
J). If unable to explain., say so - - - - 144 

1. III. " More requires more " - - - 145 

8. Promptness and accuracy in recitation - - 146 

9. Answers hy the class individually - - 146 
a. The Lancasterian method - - - - 147, 418 

ii. STUDY SHOULD BE MORE ATTRACTIVE THAN PLAY 148 

iii. THE RECITATION IS THE TEACHERS OPPORTUNITY 148 

Chapter VIII. EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY 149 

i. INCENTIVES TO STLT)Y - - - - ^ 150 

A. Emulation - - - - - 150, 205 



TOPICAL AN^ALYSIS, FOR REVIEWS 441 

PAGE 

1. A question much discussed - - - - 150, 419 

2. Tlie sliield lias two sides - - - - 152 
a. Self -emulation is commendable _ _ - 152, 305 

B. Desire to surpass others is unworthy - - 153 

1. A principle of human nature - - - 156 

2. An active principle in the practical world - - 156 

3. But not needed for the pupil - - - - 157 

4. Not expedient _ - _ - - 157 

B. Prizes always productive of evil - - - 158 

1. Give undue prominence to unworthy object - 160 

2. Engender rivalry among the pupils - - - I6O, 226 

3. Stimulate the lew, hut discourage the many - 161, 166 

a. Prize scholars seldom eminent men - - 162 

b. Malce the most of all the impils - - 163 

4. Difftcult to award prizes justly - - - 163 
n. III. A '•'•unanimous'' report on compositions - 163 
b. Other things beside merit to consider - - 165 

1. Difference in external facilities - - 165 

2. Improper means employed - - - 165 

5. Success and talent rewarded ; not effort and worth 167 
a. God rewards effort _ _ _ _ 168,419 

6. Effort for prize ceases when prize is awarded - 169 

7. Good influence cf excellent pupils lost - - 169 

8. Rewards less objectionable, but unnecessary - 170, 205 

C. Proper incentives _ _ - - - 171 

1. Desire for approbation _ - - - 171 

2. Desire of advancement - - - - 172 

3. Desire to be useful _ _ _ - 173 

4. Desire to do right __ - - - 173 
a. Cultivation of cunscience - - - 174 

5. Pleasure of acquisition _ _ _ - 176, 420 

a. Amazing acquisition in infancy - - 176 

b. Noticeable in the blind, tlie deaf and dumb - - 177 

c. Contim(es in mature years _ _ - 178 

d. The all-pervading desire to know - - - 179 



442 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHHS^^G 



Chapter IX. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. - 

i. REQUISITES IN THE TEACHER - 

A. Self-government - - - 

1. The passion of anger 

2. Levity and moroseness of manner 
a. III. Jacob AbboWs neio teacher 

3. Treatment of backward pupils 

B. Confidence in his ability to govern - 

C. Just views of government 

1. Not my school, but our school 

2. Manner must he uniform from day to day - 

3. Discipline must be equal and impartial 

4. Approbation, affection, conscience appealed to 

5. Decision and firmness needed 

a. Regard for liersonal convenience 
1. III. James gets his drink of water 

6. Deep moral principle _ - _ 
ii. MEANS OF SECURING GOOD ORDER 

.1. Take care as to first impression you make 
1. Respect precedes attachment 

B. Do not show suspicious spirit 

1. Depraved boy reformed by confidence 

2. Dr. Franklin gained over enemies l)y asking favors 

C. Begin regular work at once 

D. Make but few rules _ _ _ 

1. The great rule of duty _ _ _ 

2. Is it right ? vs. Is it forbidden ? 

3. Arbitrary rules work injustice 

a. III. William and Charles boUi fernied 

4. Do not threaten _ _ _ - 

E. Wake up mind in the school and thk district 
1. Have vocal music in school - - - 

F. Visit the parents _ _ _ 

G. Keep registers of standing ~ 

H. Do not govern too much - - - 

1. III. A Class in grammar _ _ _ 



- 182, 

184, 

185, 188, 



PAGE 
181 

181 

181, 211 

182, 4;20 
187,420 
193, 421 
343, :i51 
185,422 

186 
186 

187, 368 

187, 422 
183 
190 
190 
191 
192 
193 
193 
194 
195 
195 
198 
196 
197 
198 
198 
199 
199 
201 
202 

203, 422 
204 

205, 423 
206 
207 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, FOR KEVIEWS 443 

PAGE 

2. Another teacher, and another school - - 210 

3. Death-like stillness not desirable - - 211 
iii. PUNISHMENTS .... - 212 

.1. Definition ------ 212 

1. Purpose of punishment - - - - 313 

B. Authority to inflict punishment - - - 213 

1. Fear and shame low principles _ - _ 214 

2. Two classes of punishments - - - 215 

C. Improper punishments - _ - - 216 

1. Those that excite feeling of indignity - • 216 
a. T he head should be free frorti attacli - - :;^17, 251 

1. Scolding also undignified _ > , 217 

2. Blaclcguard threats - - - - 219 

2. Those that involve prolonged torture - 220 

a. Holding the Bible at arm's length - - 220 

b. '•'■Holding a nail into the floor ^' - - ■ 222 

c. '■'•Sitting on notJiing'^ _ - _ .. 222 

3. Ridicule ------ 223 

a. Makes affection impossible - - • 2:24 

b. Calls forth worst feelings in school - - 225 
1. III. Mary tells a lie - - 225 

D. Proper Punishments - - - - 227 

1. Kind reproof _ - _ _ -^-y^, 250 

2. Loss of privileges - - - - 228, 423 

3. Restraint or confinement _ _ _ -22% 244 

4. Humiliation ----- 230 

5. Imposition of a task _ . . 031^ 423 

6. Corporal punishment _ „ _ _ 030^ 434 

a. The teacher must establish authoritu - 234 
1. Children come unprepared to obey - - 236, 424 
il. Many teachers lack preparation - - 237, 241 
ill. District quarrels enter tlie schoolroom - - 239 

b. Often teacher rmist punish or fail - - 241 
1. Should not publish that he will not punisli - 242 
ii. Use the f-od as a last resort - - - 243 

c. Substitutes for the rod - - - - 344 



444 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 



i. Solitary couflnement - . - 

11. Expulsion _ _ _ 

a. Corporal PunisJitnentjustijiable 

e. LimUations and suggestions 
1. Must be best thing for the specific case 
ii. Must not be inflicted in anger 
iii. Must be Inflicted before tlie school 
iv. Must be delayed till anger subsides 
V. Instrument and manner must be proper 
vi. Should be made effectual 
vii. Must be avoided on slight occasion 

/. Avoid generalizing from scanti/ inductions 

g. Avoid Tiasty piiblic " resolntions " 
E. Minimum punishment, maximum excellence 

Chapter X. SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS 

i. THE FIRST DAY OF SCHOOL 
A. Have a plan to start with 

1. Visit the district before school begins 

a. No disparagement of former teachers 

b. Visit the poor as icell as tJie rich 

2. Get acquainted before school opens 
a. Be at school early 

ii. PLANNING THE DAY'S WORK 

A. III. The teacher without a plan 

B. Scheme of the day's duties 

1. Provide for studying, as well as for recitation 

2. Specimen programme - - . 
a. Alternate studies 

3. Programme of Albany Normal, 1846 
Hi. INTERRUPTIONS 

A. III. The grammar lesson - - _ 

B. A time for everything 

iii. RECESSES ----- 

A. How MANY ? - 

B. One each half-day for each sex - 

1. Duration _ - - _ 



page 
244 

- 245, 424 

247 

248 

248,253 

- 248, 251 

249 
251 
251 
251 
253 
253 
254 
25G 

258, 424 

25S 
260, 265, 424 
260 
261 
262 
263 

- 264, 424 

265 



268 
), 424, 425 
271 
274 
275 
276 

279, 425 
286, 424 

280 

280, 425 
281 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, ^OU REVIEWS 445 

PAGE 

2. Propel- hour _ . _ _ - 282,425 

iv. ASSIGNING LESSONS ----- 283 

.4. Not how much but how well - _ - 034^ 346, 426 

V. REVIEWS ------ 285 

A. Make practical application _ . _ 28G 

B. General review at close of study - - - 286 
vi. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS - - - -288,426 

.1. Objections ------ 288 

1. Not fair criterion of tlie teaclier - - - 288 

2. Nor of tlie pupils ----- 289 

3. Tempt to dlslionesty of teaclier - - - 289 
n. The teacher should be strictly honest - 290, 338, 351 

1. No special preparation lor show - - - 291, 426 

Chafter XL TEACHER'S RELATION TO PARENTS 293 

i. THE TEACHER SHOULD SEEK FREQUENT INTERCOURSE 294 

ii. HE SHOULD BE WILLING TO EXPLAIN HIS PLANS - 295, ;i52 

.1. "No tales out OF SCHOOL" _ _ - ogg 

iii. SHOULD ENCOURAGE FREQUENT VISITS - - 297 

A. And SHOW the school as it is - - - 297, 339 

iv. SHOULD BE FRANK IN REPRESENTING THE PUPILS - 298, 426 

V. SHOULD HAVE THE HABITS OF A GENTLEMAN - 298 

vi. SHOULD NOT DESPISE THEIR '^ OUT-DOOR WORK " - 300,426 

Chapter XII. TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH 302 

i. IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH _ _ _ - 303, 427 

ii. EXERCISE - - - - - - ;304 

A. Walking ------ 304 

B. RroiNG ON horseback _ _ - - 305, 427 

C. Gardening ------ ;306 

n. Rowing, skating, driving, etc - _ - 306 

E. Air, light, water ----- ;307 

iii. SLEEP ------ 309 

iv. DIET ------- 309 

A. Suggestions as to food. - - - - ,S09 

1. It should he simple ----- 309 

2, Talcen at intervals sufficiently distant - - 310 



446 THEORY A^D PRACTICE OF TEACIIIN(} 

PAGE 

3. In moderate quantity - _ _ _ ;]ii^ 427 

4. Fat to be avoided - _ _ _ .310 

5. Fruit eaten with discretion - - _ _ 312 

6. Drinlc water, and only at meals - - •■ ;u2, 427 

7. Avoid exertion after a meal - - - - ■ 312 

V. DRESS _ 310^ 315 

Vi. CHEERFULNESS - - _ _ _ 313 

Vii. MUSIC ------ 314 

Viil. AVOID WRAPPING UP THE NECK - - _ 315 

Chapteh XITI the TEACHERS PvELATION TO HIS 

PROFESSION - - 818,428,435 

L TEACHING SHOULD BE A PROFESSION - - 318 

A. Too LITTLE DISCRIMINATION IN EMPLOYMENT - - 319 

B. Better teachers, higher pay - _ - 301^ 408 
11. THE PERSONAL DUTY OF TEACHERS TO THEIR CALLING 322 

A. Importance of self-culture - _ _ 3^3 

1. He lias time for it - _ _ - - 3^5 

2. Such work finds immediate reward - - 326 

B. Means of self-culture _ . _ _ 3^7 

1. A course of professional reading - - _ 3-37^ 428 

2. A course of general study - _ - _ 3.^ 

3. The common-place book _ _ . 309 
lii. THE MUTUAL DUTIES OF TEACHERS TO THEIR CALLING 330 

A. Mutual aid - - - - - 331 

1. Mutual visitation - - - - - 332 

2. Use of the columns cf a newspaper - - 334 

3. Teachers' associations _ _ _ _ 3:35 

B. Suggestions as to professional intercourse - 338 

1. Be honest --__-. 00^^ 4;jo 
a. Shoiv everii-Gay trork _ - _ 339 

2. Adapt but do not adopt the plans of others - - 340 

3. Avoid self-sufficiency _ _ _ _ 341 

Chapter XIV. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 342 

1. HINTS FROM TWENTY YEARS' EXPERIENC;E - ,342 

A. Things to be avoided - - - - 343 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, FOR llEVlLWS 417 

PAGE 

1. Guard against prejudice on entering a school - 342 
a. Mn<4 a f tractive pup ils 1 lot aJica ijs laorllu'est - ,112, 4;30 

2. Keep the direction of the puiMls' studies - 344, 4;j0 
a Do not teach too many tilings - - - PAG 

4. Do only school worlc iii school hours - - ;:48, ill 

5. Avoid excuses to visitors - - . _ 048 

6. Donotcompai-epupils - - _ _ 351 

7. Avoid wounding the sensibilities of the dull - - 351 

8. Do not lose patience with parents - - 352, 431 

9. Never malce study of the Bible a punishment - 353 



10. Ride no "hobbies" 
a. Oral instruction 



G5t 
355, 431 



b. A favorite l)rancJi of fttudy - . _ 3.^ 

V. Prefereitceforhir/herhranclies - - - 359 

B. Things to be performed - - _ _ ^59 

1. Convince your pupils you are a friend - - 359 

2. Keep the schcolhouse in good order - - 361 
a. Cmiauctonvmy toanafrom scJiool - - 362,433 

3. Teach decimal currency only _ _ _ 363 

4. Sometimes reprove by general instruction - - 365 
a. III. Killiua four birds 11- i (hone stone - - 365 

5. Be accurate - - - - _ 366, 431 
G. Wear a pleasant countenance - . _ 303 

a. A matter of self-control - - _ _ 3rJ 

7. Study the art of illustrating - . _ 371 
(I. Til. The attJ-act ion. of gravity - - _ 372 

8. Seize opportunities for moral impression - - 376 
His. a. The thunder -shoiiier - - .377 

b. The o-nthnrst of the sun. - - - 383 

Chapter XV. THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER 389, 435 

I. MEAGRE MONEY REWARD - - - - 389 

II. YET RE^VARD IN OTHER WAYS - - - 391 

.4. Some considerations - _ _ _ ;^2 

1. Opportunity f jr intellectual growth - - - 332 

2. Means of moral growth - - - _ S92 

3. Conscious Improvement in teaching - - - 394 



448 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING 

PAGE 

4. Gratincation in mental growth of pupils ' - - 394 
a. " These were my inipils " ^ - - 395 

5. His calling- Is useful and honorable - - 396 
a. He ecJucates the immortal mind - - - 396 
1). Some of the greatest men have heen teacherfs - 398 

6. He is gratefully remembered _ _ _ ;^99 
a. Next to parents comes the teacher - - 401 

7. He enjoys the approval of Heaven _ _ - 408 
B. Let the teacher cease to repine - - 404 

111. "I MAGNIFY MINE OFFICE" - - - _ 405 



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